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State  Control 


of 


Courses  of  Study 

With  Appendices  on   Religious 

Instruction  and  the  Grading 

of  School  Systems 


by 

Fred    J.  Brownscombe 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Montpelier,  Vt. 

Author  of  **  The  Play  Hour,"  "  Language 

Lessons  for  Grades  i  and  2,"  etc. 


Silver,  Burdett  and  Company 
New  York     Boston     Chicago 


By 


Copyright,  igo8, 

BY 

Silver,  Burdett  and  Company 
EDUCAT50N  OEPT. 


i'lC- 


STATE    CONTROL 

OF 

COURSES   OF  STUDY 


543138 


This  little  worky  a  result  of  some  studies 
carried  on  for  another  purpose  ^  is  printed  in 
the  hope  that  it  may  be  of  some  service  to 
students  of  education  and  others ^  by  placing 
at  their  disposal  a  quantity  of  information 
accessible  now  only  in  the  pages  of  many 
special  reports^  pamphlets^  and  books  in 
several  languages. 


CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Introduction xi 

Classification  : 

Class  I.  State  control  of  courses  of  study 
for  elementary,  secondary,  and  normal 
schools : 

(a)  Including  state  supervision  of  private 
schools:  France;  Germany;  Sweden; 
Switzerland;  Austria;  Greece;   Russia        3 

(d)  Not  including  private  schools :  Canada ; 
Japan;  Portugal;  Servia;  Italy;  Mex- 
ico; Guatemala;  Brazil;  Argentine 
Republic 12 

(c)  Dependencies  —  Educational  systems 
prescribed  by  the  home  governments: 
India;  Porto  Rico;  Philippines    .        •      20 

Class  II.     State  prescription  for  secondary 
schools  and  a  minimum  for  elementary 
schools : 
Belgium ;  Norway ;  The  Netherlands         .       27 

Class  III.     Prescribed  courses  for  elemen- 
tary schools  alone : 
England;     Scotland;     Ireland;     Wales; 


viii  Contents 

PAGB 

Australia;  Tasmania;  New  Zealand; 
Cape  Colony ;  Natal ;  Jamaica ;  British 
Guiana ;  British  Honduras  ;  Nicaragua ; 
Costa  Rica ;  Honduras ;  Uruguay         .      3 1 

Class  IV.    No  state  prescription  of  courses 
of  study : 
Denmarjk;   Finland;  Newfoundland;  Mo- 
hammedan countries ;  Egypt ;  China    .      41 

Class  V.  The  United  States  of  America :  49 
(a)  Physiology  and  hygiene  with  special 
reference  to  alcohol  and  narcotics  pre- 
scribed in  all  the  states  .  .  'Si 
(^)  No  other  state  prescription :  New 
York ;  Ohio ;  Florida ;  Iowa ;  Nebraska ; 
Arkansas  ;  Delaware ;  Alabama ;  New 
Jersey ;  Rhode  Island  .         .        .         -52 

(c)  Prescribed  courses  for  communities 
below  a  fixed  population:  Oregon; 
Washington  .         .        .        .         '55 

(d)  Instruction  limited  to  certain  branches : 
Virginia;  North  Carolina;  Kentucky; 
Vermont;  California     .         .         .        •       5^ 

(^)  Courses  prescribed  or  state  authorities 
have  power  to  prescribe :  Indiana ;  Ari- 
zona; Idaho;  Maryland;  Michigan; 
Minnesota;  Nevada;  Montana;  South 
Carolina;  North  Dakota;  Tennessee; 
West  Virginia ;  Wisconsin ;  Missouri ; 
Louisiana;  Maine;  Massachusetts        .      59 


Contents  ix 

PAGB 

(y)  Minimum  prescribed :  Colorado ;  Illi- 
nois ;  Mississippi ;  Connecticut ;  New 
Mexico ;  Kansas ;  Oklahoma ;  Penn- 
sylvania; Georgia;  South  Dakota; 
Texas ;  Utah ;  Wyoming ;  New  Hamp- 
shire      72 

Conclusion  : 

Recent  Legislation      ....      83 

Appendix  : 

Religious  Instruction  ....  87 

Grading  of  School  Systems        .        .  97 

Books  Consulted 123 


INTRODUCTION 

Fabian  Ware  begins  his  interesting 
and  instructive  book,  "  Educational  Foun- 
dations of  Trade  and  Industry/'  with 
the  statement  that  "  Whatever  may  be  con- 
sidered the  most  remarkable  achievement 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  national  education 
systems  which  it  has  founded  will  be  held 
responsible  by  future  generations  for 
much  of  the  prosperity  which  they  may 
enjoy,  and  many  of  the  woes  which  they 
will  suffer/' 

It  is  a  fact  that  nearly  all  our  national 
education  systems  took  their  rise  in  the 
nineteenth  century  and  largely  in  the 
latter  half  of  that  century,  and  while  it 
is  no  doubt  true  that  we  look  to  an  earlier 
date  for  the   organization  of   some,  it  is 


xii  Introduction 

equally  true  that  their  completed  organiza- 
tion lies  in  the  century  mentioned.  But 
the  justice  with  which  posterity  may,  if 
posterity  should,  place  the  burden  of  its 
weal  or  its  woe  upon  these  education 
systems  is  open  to  question.  Is  it  not 
placing  the  cart  before  the  horse ;  that  is, 
is  not  education  an  effect  rather  than  a 
cause  ?  Or,  looked  at  from  the  sociolog- 
ical point  of  view,  is  not  an  educational 
system  merely  one  expression  of  the 
genius  of  a  people,  as  characteristic  as 
any  other  social  activity  ?  If  the  idea  in 
the  minds  of  the  founders  of  the  Prus- 
sian system  was  the  generally  accepted 
theory  of  "the  harmonious  development 
of  the  whole  man,'*  is  it  not  true  that 
the  Prussian  system  has  developed  along 
strictly  national  lines  practically  regard- 
less of  theory.?  It  seems  to  me  that  it 
would  be  an  easy  matter  to  prove  that 
the  actuary  principle  of  all  state  systems 


Introduction  xiii 

is  the  theory  last  stated  by  President 
Butler  in  "The  Meaning  of  Education*' 
as  "the  fitting  of  the  individual  to  his 
environment/'  But  if  this  be  the  prin- 
ciple consciously  or  unconsciously  under- 
lying all  state  systems,  it  becomes  merely 
an  ex  post  facto  theory,  or  rather  ceases 
to  be  a  theory  at  all  and  becomes  a  simple 
statement  of  fact.  Viewed  from  this  stand- 
point, systems  which  seem  at  first  glance 
to  us  to  be  quite  absurd  will  seem  to  have 
a  sufficient  reason  to  be  entirely  sane.  So 
also  are  explained  the  failures  which 
befall  the  imposition  of  a  highly  organized 
educational  system  of  a  superior  people 
upon  an  inferior  race,  or  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  transferring  the  system  of 
one  country  to  another,  from  which,  by 
the  way,  might  be  drawn  a  practical 
lesson  for  those  educators  whose  eyes 
are  always  turned  towards  Europe  for 
inspiration. 


XIV  Introduction 

However,  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
work  to  deal  with  educational  theory  or 
educational  history,  both  of  which  are 
amplified  in  many  books,  wise  and  other- 
wise, but  to  present  the  conditions  of  state 
control  of  courses  of  study  as  they  exist 
at  the  present  day.  Classification  is  some- 
what difficult,  state  control  ranging  as  it 
does  from  the  extremely  detailed  French 
system  to  the  very  loose  organization  of 
some  of  the  American  states.  Viewed  in 
the  light  of  the  "environment**  principle, 
this  wide  variation  is  comparatively  easy 
to  understand  and  forms  in  itself  an  inter- 
esting study. 

The  material  for  the  following  classi- 
fication is  to  be  found  in  the  school  laws 
of  the  various  countries  mentioned,  in 
official  reports,  and  in  various  books  and 
papers,  a  list  of  which  is  appended. 


CLASS    I 

STATE     CONTROL     OF    COURSES    OF 

STUDY       FOR       ELEMENTARY, 

SECONDARY,  AND  NORMAL 

SCHOOLS 


CLASS   I 

STATE  CONTROL  OF  COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR 
ELEMENTARY,  SECONDARY,  AND  NORMAL 
SCHOOLS 

(a)  Including   state   supervision   of  private 

SCHOOLS 

France  —  In  France  centralization  has 
reached  its  highest  point ;  so  far  has  it  gone 
that  the  inevitable  reaction  is  now  appear- 
ing. An  observer  of  French  character- 
istics has  said  that  a  Frenchman  can  do 
nothing  without  a  program,  and  this  na- 
tional trait  is  exhibited  fully  in  educational 
matters.  A  French  minister,  it  is  said, 
once  took  out  his  watch  with  the  remark 
that  he  could  tell  exactly  what  any  pupil 
in  the  French  schools  was  doing  at  that 
particular  minute.  Of  course  this  is  an 
exaggeration,  but  the  story  shows  very 
clearly    the    prevailing    tendency.       The 


4  State  Control  of 

cotiises  of  study  for  each  of  the  above 
classes  of  schools  are  fixed  by  the  educa- 
tional authorities  whose  regulations  state 
the  ground  to  be  covered  in  each  subject, 
together  with  the  order  and  method  of 
teaching  and,  also,  the  daily  program. 
Everything  to  the  smallest  detail  is  pre- 
scribed by  the  government,  and  any  pos- 
sible loophole  is  closed  by  a  rigid  examina- 
tion system,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  bac- 
calaureat  or  leaving  examination  for  the 
secondary  schools.  Naturally  there  is  a 
"remarkable  uniformity  in  the  organiza- 
tion and  proficiency  of  the  same  class  of 
schools/'  Hughes  says  that  "  Individual- 
ity of  school  and  pupil  cannot  be  tolerated. 
They  must  all  conform  to  the  model."  The 
higher  primary  schools  have  some  degree 
of  liberty,  being  held  to  a  general  observ- 
ance only  of  several  alternative  programs 
issued  by  the  Educational  Department,  but 
even  these  are  controlled  through  state 


Courses  of  Study  5 

aid.  It  is  in  this  class  of  schools  that  the 
reaction  against  centralization  shows  itself. 
The  private  schools  may  select  their  books 
and  methods,  but  are  under  strict  govern- 
ment supervision.  I  may  add  that  there  is 
practically  no  connection  between  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  education,  one  aim  of 
state  control  apparently  being  to  check  the 
tendency  toward  social  equality  which 
would  lead  (in  France)  to  the  overcrowd- 
ing of  the  professions  conferring  social 
distinction.  For  France  is  a  land  of  classes, 
and  its  democracy  is  one  of  legal  not  social 
equality. 

Germany  —  In  elementary,  secondary, 
and  normal  schools  the  courses  of  study 
and  number  of  hours  for  each  subject  are 
prescribed.  There  is  a  common  standard 
of  promotion  and  graduation,  and  the  gov- 
ernment exercises  a  supervision  over  mi- 
nute details,  —  a  surveillance  common  to 
all  German  life.      The  progress  of   the 


6  State  Control  of 

schools  of  each  class  differs  only  in  details 
of  management,  as  each  program  is  only 
an  elaboration  of  the  general  course  pre- 
scribed by  educational  laws  or  codes.  The 
individual  German  teacher,  however,  has 
more  freedom  in  the  selection  of  material 
and  methods  of  presentation  than  the 
French  teacher.  Private  schools  are 
under  stricter  supervision  and  must  main- 
tain the  government  standard. 

As  in  France,  there  is  little  connection, 
if  any,  between  the  elementary  and  the 
secondary  school.  There  is  practical  una- 
nimity of  agreement  as  to  the  excellence 
of  the  German  schools  in  general,  but  this 
does  not  mean,  as  some  have  taken  it,  that 
German  methods  of  organization  could  be 
applied  to  our  American  schools.  Russell 
says  in  "  The  Higher  Schools  of  Germany" 
that  they  satisfy  German  needs,  but  "just 
in  proportion  as  German  schools  are  Ger- 
man they  are    un-American  and  incapa- 


Courses  of  Study  7 

ble  of  satisfying  American  needs/*  And 
their  excellence  is  due  to  excellent  teaching 
and  compulsory  attendance  rather  than  to 
so  much  state  interference.  An  observer 
says,  "The  superiority  of  the  Prussian 
system  of  elementary  education  may  be 
summed  up  in  one  sentence  —  Prussia 
sends  all  her  children  between  fixed 
ages  to  school  and  protects  them  while 
there  from  the  imposition  of  bad  work." 
Organization  in  Germany  has  extended 
perhaps  to  the  point  of  destroying  inde- 
pendence. Hughes  says  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  "  The  children  are  rarely 
trained  to  resourcefulness  and  indepen- 
dence, and  the  result  is  that  when  they 
leave  school  they  are  helpless,  and  rapidly 
deteriorate  into  the  indifference  of  the 
uneducated  class."  The  superiority  of  Ger- 
man over  French  education  lies  in  the 
fact  that  German  educational  authorities 
have  tried   to  find  out   what   is   the   best 


8  State  Control  of 

kind  of  education  that  can  be  given,  while 
the  French  have  tried  to  determine  what  is 
the  greatest  amount  that  can  be  allowed. 
The  intent  of  German  state  control  is  ap- 
parently not  to  regard  education  as  an  end 
in  itself,  but  of  value  to  purposes  of  gov- 
ernment, the  aim  being  to  make  citizens 
submissive,  self-supporting,  and  patriotic. 

Sweden  —  With  a  careful  prescription 
of  courses  and  hours  to  each  subject,  there 
is  yet  more  freedom  than  in  the  first  two 
countries  described,  as  we  would  naturally 
expect  from  the  character  of  the  people. 
Private  schools  are  inspected  and  may  re- 
ceive government  aid  if  they  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  public  schools.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  private  schools 
are  encouraged  to  experiment  in  methods, 
the  idea  being  to  use  the  successful  ones 
in  the  public  schools.  It  seems  a  rather 
shrewd  plan  on  the  part  of  the  government 
to  obtain  the   advantages   of    educational 


Courses  of  Study  9 

experiment  without  any  expenditure  on 
its  part. 

The  self-reliance  and  love  of  self- 
government  of  the  people  finds  an  out- 
let in  the  people's  colleges,  which  admit 
any  one  over  eighteen  years  of  age  who 
has  passed  through  the  primary  course, 
and  which  refuse  to  tolerate  any  govern- 
ment intervention. 

Switzerland — While  Federal  legislation 
provides  for  compulsory  education,  the 
various  cantons  are  otherwise  independent 
educationally.  Each  has  a  thorough  or- 
ganization with  fixed  conditions  as  to 
courses  of  study  and  subjects,  but  it  does 
not  interfere  with  methods  of  teaching 
and  daily  programs. 

Austria  —  Courses  of  study,  hours,  and 
time-tables  are  prescribed  for  the  graded, 
partly  graded,  and  fully  graded  schools  of 
the  elementary  system.  The  secondary 
schools  are  very   similar  to  those   of  the 


lo  State  Control  of 

German  states.  The  teachers  of  both 
have  great  freedom  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing. Private  schools  are  encouraged,  and 
if  they  meet  the  government  requirements, 
they  may  receive  subsidies  and  be  incor- 
porated in  the  state  system. 

Greece  —  For  the  demotic,  or  primary, 
and  the  Hellenic,  or  higher  elementary 
schools,  the  subjects  and  hours  are  pre- 
scribed. For  the  gymnasia,  or  secondary 
schools,  a  general  program  with  details  for 
the  teaching  of  each  subject  is  submitted. 
Private  schools  must  meet  the  state  re- 
quirements, and  have  teachers  with  regular 
state  licenses. 

Russia  —  Russian  schools  are  under  the 
authority  of  either  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Instruction  or  the  holy  synod,  and  the  sub- 
jects to  be  pursued  in  all  classes  of  schools 
are  prescribed  by  them.  E.  Kovalevsky, 
of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  de- 
scribes the  system  in  1902  as  follows :  — 


Courses  of  Study  ii 

Elementary  Education 

(i)  Elementary   schools  of  one  class 
—  a  four  years'  course. 

(2)  Higher  elementary  schools  —  the 

district,  town,  or  ministerial 
schools,  each  with  a  five  years' 
course. 

(3)  Evening  and  Sunday  schools  for 

adults. 
Secondary  Education 
(i)  Gymnasia     and     progymnasia  — 

prepare  for  university. 
(2)  Real  schools  —  prepare  for  higher 
technical  schools. 
Universities  —  Ten  in  number. 
Military y  Naval y  and  Technical  Schools 
—  Kovalevsky  claims  that  secondary  schools 
are  open  to  boys   and   girls  of   all  social 
classes,  but  the  newspapers  report  a  late 
edict  forbidding  the  gymnasia  to  children 
of  washerwomen    and    artisans.      Prince 
Krapotkin  and  others  assert  that  it  is  the 


12  State  Control  of 

policy  of  the  Russian  government  to  keep 
the  masses  in  ignorance.  The  Novoe 
Vremyuy  a  reputable  Russian  newspaper, 
said  in  1898  that  Russian  society  spends 
five  or  seven  times  more  than  the  govern- 
ment in  striving  toward  education.  The 
proportion  of  schools  to  the  population  is 
small,  and  there  are  certainly  many  restric- 
tions regarding  higher  education  —  the 
Jews,  for  example,  being  limited  to  three 
per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  any  univer- 
sity. There  is  compulsory  education  in 
only  the  Baltic  and  Cossack  provinces, 
and  in  Finland.  It  is  asserted  that  the 
government  not  merely  fails  to  encourage 
education,  but  that  it  places  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  establishing  even  elementary 
schools. 

(p)   Not  including  private  schools 

Canada  —  As  discussion  of  the  German 
school  system  usually  centers  about  Prus- 


Courses  of  Study  13 

sia,  so  we  may  take  the  Ontario  school 
system  as  a  type  of  the  Canadian  provinces 
in  general,  the  others  consisting  of  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  Manitoba,  British  Columbia,  Que- 
bec, and  the  Canadian  territories.  These 
differ  from  Ontario  in  local  details  and  less 
complete  organization.  Descended  from 
the  same  people,  they  resemble  our  states 
in  many  respects ;  as,  for  example,  in  the 
New  World  idea  of  a  straight  road  from 
the  kindergarten  to  the  university.  But 
never  having  passed  through  the  throes 
of  revolution  nor  separation  from  the 
mother-land,  they  have  no  cause  for  our 
fear  of  centralization,  and  thus  it  has  been 
an  easy  matter  to  establish  a  central  au- 
thority. All  educational  questions  are  de- 
termined by,  and  all  educational  authority 
emanates  from,  this  central  authority,  the 
education  department,  whose  head,  the 
Minister  of  Education,  is  a  cabinet  officer. 


14  State  Control  of 

Before  the  schools  were  organized 
the  founder  of  this  system  spent  some 
time  in  investigating  education  in  vari- 
ous foreign  countries,  from  which  the 
impression  left  by  Prussia  was  evident  in 
the  certification  of  teachers,  the  examina- 
tion system,  and  many  other  details.  Time 
has  modified  much  of  this,  but  the  Prussian 
influence  is  still  evident  in  such  terminology 
as  the  public  school  leaving  examination, 
junior  leaving  examination,  etc.  So,  also, 
while  there  is  no  caste  in  Canada,  some- 
thing of  the  Old  World  idea  lingers  in  the 
classification  of  the  schools ;  for  while  all 
the  system  is  equally  public,  the  elemen- 
tary and  the  secondary  schools  are  dis- 
tinguished as  public  schools  and  high 
schools. 

The  European  influence  is  shown,  too, 
in  the  elimination  of  the  unfit  by  govern- 
ment examinations  at  various  stages  in  the 
course,   and   the  requirement  that  public 


Courses  of  Study  15 

schools  and  high  schools  be  not  in  the 
same  buildings. 

The  studies  and  courses  are  carefully 
prescribed  for  all  classes  of  schools, — 
elementary,  secondary,  normal,  and  the 
Normal  Training  College.  The  require- 
ments for  the  fifth  form  of  the  public 
school,  found  usually  only  in  country  and 
village  districts,  are  largely  optional.  Out- 
side of  courses,  texts,  and  classes  of  teach- 
ers, there  is  much  local  freedom  in  all 
the  Canadian  provinces. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  the  Ontario 
system  is  modeled  considerably  upon  that 
of  Prussia,  though  its  universities  conform 
to  the  British  type ;  but  the  educational 
thought  of  the  United  States  is  exerting  an 
ever  growing  influence  upon  its  educational 
fabric. 

Japan — Japan  has  levied  upon  the  civ- 
ilized world  for  its  educational  purposes, 
and  the  result  is  a  well-coordinated,  cen- 


1 6  State  Control  of 

tralized  system,  with  a  certain  amount  of 
our  American  elasticity.  In  its  elementary 
schools,  the  first  part  of  the  course  of  study 
is  obligatory,  but  in  the  later  years  there 
are  certain  optional  as  well  as  some  obliga- 
tory subjects.  The  course  is  fixed  for  all 
pupils  for  the  first  three  years  of  the  sec- 
ondary school,  but  in  the  two  final  years 
they  have  a  choice  of  electives,  election 
depending  upon  their  determination  to  go 
to  college  or  to  follow  practical  pursuits. 

Portugal  —  The  subjects  of  the  primary 
curriculum  are  determined  by  the  govern- 
ment, but  the  apportionment  of  work  to 
classes  is  left  to  the  district  superinten- 
dents. The  teacher  must  use  prescribed 
texts,  but  is  free  to  use  his  own  methods  of 
teaching.  The  secondary  schools  are  of 
two  kinds,  —  central  lycees  of  seven  years, 
and  national  lycees  of  five  years.  Either 
prepares  for  the  university,  and  the  courses 
of  study  and  hours  in  each  are  prescribed. 


Courses  of  Study  17 

Servia — The  sanguinary  record  of  Ser- 
via  would  hardly  lead  one  to  suspect  it  of 
possessing  a  highly  organized  school  sys- 
tem, but,  nevertheless,  such  a  system, 
modeled  largely  on  German  lines,  does 
exist.  But  it  is  recent,  the  elementary 
curriculum  having  been  settled  by  the  Act 
of  1898.  State  prescription  of  courses  and 
hours  for  secondary  schools  came  some- 
what earlier.  The  system  is  as  yet  not 
thoroughly  effective,  but  we  may  expect  it 
to  mean  that  Servia  is  preparing  for  a 
higher  order  of  things  than  it  has  had  in 
the  past. 

Italy  —  Elementary  education  consists 
of  inferior  elementary  and  superior  ele- 
mentary. Inferior  elementary  lasts  three 
years,  and  is  terminated  by  an  examina- 
tion, successful  candidates  receiving  a 
diploma.  Superior  elementary  education 
lasts  two  years  more,  and  ends  with  an 
examination  admitting  to  normal  or  sec- 


1 8  State  Control  of 

ondary  schools.  Secondary  education 
takes  eight  years  to  complete,  five  for 
the  gymnasia,  from  which,  after  passing 
an  examination,  the  student  enters  the 
lycee.  Thence,  with  another  examination, 
he  enters  the  university. 

Private  school  teachers  must  hold  the 
same  grade  of  teacher's  license  as  for  a 
corresponding  position  in  the  public 
schools.  Excepting  for  the  private  schools, 
the  courses  of  study  are  minutely  pre- 
scribed for  the  above  classes  of  schools. 

Mexico  —  Mexico  has  a  well-planned 
system  of  education,  the  courses  of  study 
being  determined  by  the  central  author- 
ity for  primary,  secondary,  and  normal 
schools.  The  government  provides  and 
prescribes  courses  also  for  higher  tech- 
nical schools,  as  the  National  College  of 
Engineering  and  Mining,  the  National 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Veterinary 
Surgery,    the    Commercial    College,    and 


Courses  of  Study  19 

others.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the 
Spanish-American  countries,  in  general, 
a  considerable  part  of  the  population  — 
the  native  Indian  —  is  left  almost  un- 
touched by  the  schools. 

Guatemala  — The  system  is  very  similar 
to  Mexico,  but  not  as  completely  extended. 

Brazil — Brazil  has  been  more  fortunate 
than  the  average  South  American  country 
in  having  possessed  a  stable  government 
for  a  considerable  period,  and  thus  it  has 
had  time  to  develop  a  complete  centralized 
educational  system.  Each  of  its  states 
has  primary,  secondary,  and  normal 
schools,  and  the  country  has  a  number 
of  colleges  and  several  universities.  The 
primary  course  covers  eight  years,  at  the 
completion  of  which  a  diploma  is  given 
entitling  the  holder  to  admission  to  a  sec- 
ondary or  normal  school.  The  course  for 
the  secondary  school  covers  seven  years. 
The  normal   schools   follow  a   prescribed 


20  State  Control  of 

course.  Brazil  is  beginning  to  develop 
rapidly,  and  new  schools  are  being  organ- 
ized everywhere. 

Argentine  Republic  —  Many  American 
teachers  have  contributed  to  the  educa- 
tional progress  of  this  country.  It  is  wor- 
thy of  notice  that  the  course  of  study  for 
the  public  schools  was  arranged  by  a 
committee  of  teachers  and  principals. 
The  system  is  graded  into  public 
schools,  national  colleges,  and  universities. 
The  university  course  covers  six  years. 

(c)   Dependencies  —  Educational  systems  pre- 
scribed BY  THE  HOME  GOVERNMENTS 

India  —  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
transplanting  an  educational  system,  of 
fitting  the  collar  of  a  nineteenth  century 
civilization  to  the  neck  of  a  civilization 
hoary  with  the  centuries,  are  nowhere 
better  exemplified  than  in  India.  Out- 
side  of   America,  perhaps  none  but  the 


Courses  of  Study  21 

British  would  dare  attempt  it,  and  they 
have  made  many  failures,  —  failures  piti- 
lessly illumined  by  the  caustic  pen  of 
Rudyard  Kipling.  But  British  dogged- 
ness  and  patience  are  being  rewarded,  as 
late  Indian  reports  record  a  rousing  of 
interest  and  a  spreading  desire  for  modern 
education.  One  secret  of  their  success 
lies  in  the  excessive  care  they  take  not 
to  interfere  with  native  religions  or  cus- 
toms. They  are  also  developing  self- 
government  and  giving  it  to  the  natives 
as  fast  as  they  are  ready  for  it. 

The  English  authorities  prescribe 
courses  for  the  primary  schools,  divided 
into  upper  and  lower;  for  the  secondary 
schools,  divided  into  middle  and  high; 
and  for  various  colleges  and  special 
schools.  Besides  this,  they  have  some 
control  over  a  number  of  state-aided 
private  institutions.  In  a  number  of 
provinces   the   line  between  primary  and 


22  State  Control  of 

secondary  schools  is  not  well  marked, 
the  one  continuing  into  the  other.  Other 
names  for  classification  are  also  used ;  as, 
Madras,  with  upper  and  lower  second- 
ary ;  Bengal,  with  collegiate  and  district 
schools,  etc.  The  standard  for  secondary 
schools  is  fixed  by  the  university  matric- 
ulation. 

Porto  Rico — Porto  Rican  schools  are  in 
operation  under  the  school  laws  enacted 
by  order  of  General  Henry.  These  are 
based  on  the  laws  of  the  American  states, 
and  involve  largely  their  principle  of  local 
self-government.  The  hours,  days,  weeks, 
months,  and  terms  of  the  school  year  are 
prescribed ;  also  the  courses  of  study  and 
the  requirements  for  teachers.  Primary 
work  is  in  Spanish,  with  a  steadily  in- 
creasing amount  in  English.  The  future 
may  see  Porto  Rico  an  English-speaking 
island. 

Philippines  —  Education  in   the  Philip- 


Courses  of  Study  23 

pines  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  American 
teachers,  and  is  based  on  the  American 
plan.  Organization,  however,  is  not  as 
complete  as  in  Porto  Rico.  Spanish  is 
the  basis  of  primary  work,  with  the  same 
emphasis  on  English  as  in  Porto  Rico- 
Primary  and  normal  schools  are  in  opera- 
tion, together  with  the  beginnings  of  sec- 
ondary schools. 


CLASS    II 

STATE    PRESCRIPTION    FOR    SECOND- 
ARY  SCHOOLS   AND   A   MINIMUM 
FOR   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


CLASS   II 

STATE  PRESCRIPTION  FOR  SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS  AND  A  MINIMUM  FOR  ELE- 
MENTARY    SCHOOLS 

Belgium  —  Secondary  and  normal 
schools  are  directly  regulated  by  the  cen- 
tral authorities,  and  an  elementary  course 
is  prescribed,  but  the  communes  may  ex- 
tend the  program  within  certain  limits. 

Norway  —  Similar  to  Belgium,  but  the 
local  school  boards  determine  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  appoint  teachers,  and  draw 
up  plans  of  instruction. 

The  Netherlands  —  In  the  primary 
schools  there  are  ten  obligatory  subjects 
and  nine  optional.  The  communes  may 
omit  any  obligatory  subject,  and  must  have 
taught  any  optional  subject  when  patrons 
27 


28  State  Control 

require  it.  Secondary  schools  are  known 
as  higher  burgher  schools,  and  follow  a 
prescribed  curriculum,  but  there  is  consid- 
erable latitude  as  to  hours  and  time-tables. 
Burgher  schools  are  mostly  evening 
schools,  and  are  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  local  authorities.  The  gymnasia  are 
the  secondary  schools  proper,  and  these 
follow  a  uniform  course.  No  teacher  may 
teach  in  any  school,  private  or  public, 
without  official  sanction. 


CLASS    III 

PRESCRIBED  COURSES   FOR  ELEMEN- 
TARY SCHOOLS  ALONE 


CLASS   III 

PRESCRIBED    COURSES    FOR   ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS   ALONE 

England  —  To  an  outsider  the  English 
educational  system  or  lack  of  system,  with 
its  multiplicity  of  examinations,  seems  al- 
most incomprehensible,  and  a  noted  Eng- 
lish editor  has  said  that  the  Act  of  1903 
is  one  of  the  most  complicated  pieces 
of  legislation  ever  placed  on  the  statute 
books.  To  understand  why  this  should 
be  so,  we  must  remember  that  all  legisla- 
tion in  England  is  a  mass  of  compromises, 
that  a  caste  system  prevails,  that  there  is 
an  established  church  and  a  large  body  of 
dissenters,  that  local  freedom  is  highly 
prized,  that  England  is  par  excellence  the 
land  of  individualism,  and  finally  that  ele- 
31 


32  State  Control  of 

mentary  schools  were  originally  designed 
for  the  poorer  classes. 

In  the  elementary  schools  the  oblig- 
atory subjects  are  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  needlework  for  girls,  drawing 
for  boys,  and  one  of  the  optional  sub- 
jects. The  optional  subjects  are  singing, 
recitation,  drawing,  the  mother  tongue, 
geography,  elementary  science,  history, 
suitable  occupations  (standards  i,  2,  and 
3),  needlework  and  domestic  economy 
(for  girls).  Specific  subjects  (taken  by  in- 
dividual children  in  the  upper  classes)  are 
algebra,  Euclid,  mensuration,  mechanics, 
chemistry,  physics,  animal  physiology, 
hygiene,  botany,  principles  of  agriculture, 
horticulture,  navigation,  Latin,  French, 
Welsh  (in  Wales),  German,  bookkeeping, 
shorthand,  domestic  economy  and  domes- 
tic science  (for  girls).  Cookery,  laundry 
work,  and  dairy  work  are  also  provided 
for  girls;  and  gardening  and  manual  in- 


Courses  of  Study  33 

struction  for  boys.  Any  other  subject,  if 
sanctioned  by  the  department,  may  be 
taken  as  a  specific  subject,  if  a  graduated 
scheme  for  teaching  it  be  approved  by  the 
inspector.  With  certain  restrictions  to  the 
above,  the  local  managers  have  consider- 
able option. 

There  is  no  English  counterpart  to  our 
American  high  school,  and  such  educa- 
tion is  impossible  to  the  greater  portion 
of  the  poorer  classes,  secondary  education 
being  now  in  the  hands  of  private  schools, 
a  few  nonconformist  schools,  and  the  en- 
dowed schools  for  boys,  —  the  great  public 
schools,  which  are  not  public  at  all  in  our 
sense  of  the  word.  The  attempts  of  local 
boards  to  extend  elementary  education 
upward  received  a  very  serious  setback 
in  the  Cockerton  decision  of  1901,  which 
affirmed  that  the  local  boards  have  no 
right  to  expend  the  rates  for  anything 
other   than    elementary    education.      The 


34  State  Control  of 

agencies  connected  with  secondary  educa- 
tion are:  — 

(a)  The  Charity  Commissioners,  which 
have  some  authority  over  the  endowed 
schools,  but  no  control  of  courses  of  study. 

(Jb)  The  Department  of  Science  and  Art, 
which  controls  science  and  art  schools 
and  classes,  and  technical  schools.  It 
prescribes  studies,  but  is  liberal  in  sanc- 
tioning subjects. 

{c)  The  Education  Department  has 
slight  statutory  connection,  but  has  some 
control  through  the  elementary  schools, 
university,  colleges,  and  training  colleges. 

The  courses  in  normal  colleges  are 
partly  prescribed,  and  certificates  depend 
upon  the  inevitable  examination.  The 
multiplicity  of  examinations  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  with  little  control  over  the 
various  glasses  of  schools,  the  government 
has  had  to  secure  itself  by  an  examination 
system.     So  we  find  examination  for  the 


Courses  of  Study  35 

army,  navy,  civil  service,  Indian  service, 
for  teachers'  certificates,  the  universities, 
and  various  other  things. 

Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales  —  Systems 
similar  to  England,  with  local  variations. 
In  Scotland,  with  a  people  more  homo- 
geneous, more  democratic  in  some  ways, 
with  less  of  class  distinction  and  less  of 
religious  discord  in  educational  matters, 
there  has  always  been  more  popular 
interest  in  education,  and  a  university 
career  has  been  open  to  the  humblest 
boy.  Rural  and  village  schools  have  been 
largely  in  the  hands  of  university  men, 
who  have  taken  great  pains  in  preparing 
their  bright  boys  for  the  university,  a 
phase  of  Scottish  life  interestingly  por- 
trayed in  the  stories  of  Ian  Maclaren. 

Wales  resembles  Scotland  in  its  interest 
in  popular  education,  and  the  Welsh  Inter- 
mediate Act  of  1889  extended  elementary 
education  upward  to  a  form  of  secondary 


36  State  Control  of 

education  which  is  partly  prescribed  but 
largely  optional  with  local  authorities. 

The  Central  Welsh  Board,  organized 
in  1896,  which  controls  educational  ad- 
ministration to  a  great  extent,  represents 
the  county  councils,  university  faculties, 
and  elementary  and  secondary  teachers. 
It  is  a  progressive,  enlightened  body,  and 
is  moving  away  from  the  rigid  examination 
system  of  England. 

Ireland  in  the  past  has  been  as  unhappy 
in  its  educational  history  as  in  everything 
else,  but  at  present  the  national  system 
appears  to  be  working  harmoniously. 

Australia.  —  In  the  Australian  states  — 
Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  Queensland, 
South  Australia,  and  Western  Australia  — 
courses  of  study  are  prescribed  for  the 
elementary  schools,  whose  instruction  is 
classified  by  standards  similar  to  those  of 
England,  but  with  closer  organization  and 
a  higher  centralization.     There  is  consid- 


Courses  of  Study  37 

erable  latitude  in  some,  particularly  in  the 
newer  states.  There  is  practically  no 
state  supervision  of  the  secondary  schools, 
whose  instruction  is  determined  largely 
by  the  examinations  for  the  local  univer- 
sities or  for  London  University. 

Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  Jamaica,  British  Guiana,  British 
Honduras,  and  other  British  colonies  fol- 
low also  the  idea  of  the  mother  country, 
in  which  they  differ  from  Canada,  where, 
as  we  have  seen,  Prussian  influence  has 
been  paramount. 

Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  Honduras,  and 
Uruguay  have  state  prescription  for  the 
elementary  schools,  there  is  some  state 
control  of  secondary  schools,  but  condi- 
tions as  yet  are  unsettled. 


CLASS    IV 

NO  STATE  PRESCRIPTION  OF  COURSES 
OF  STUDY 


CLASS  IV 

NO  STATE  PRESCRIPTION  OF  COURSES  OF 
STUDY 

Denmark  —  Advocates  of  centralization 
are  wont  to  point  to  Germany  and  Ontario 
as  models,  and  to  argue  that  an  educated 
people  is  impossible  without  a  centralized 
system.  Denmark  and  Finland  refute  this 
and  require  some  other  cause.  The  truth 
seems  to  be  that  a  backward  or  unpro- 
gressive  people  require  state  compulsion, 
but  that  an  intelligent  community  may  be 
safely  left  to  its  own  guidance.  There  is 
a  very  small  degree  of  illiteracy  in  Den- 
mark, and  there  is  no  state  prescription 
nor  general  state  inspection.  Local  au- 
thorities have  complete  control  of  the 
elementary  schools,  and  methods  and  texts 
41 


42  State  Control  of 

are  left  to  the  choice  of  the  teacher.  The 
only  state  control  of  secondary  schools  is 
through  the  government  examinations. 
The  schools  are  supported  partly  by  the 
state  and  partly  by  the  communities. 

Finland  —  There  is  no  state  provision 
for  elementary  schools,  though  such  exist 
in  the  various  localities.  There  is  par- 
tial regulation  of  the  secondary  schools. 
Teachers*  training  schools  are  independ- 
ent, and  entrance  to  them  is  by  examina- 
tions set  by  each  school. 

Newfoundland  —  Here  is  no  system  of 
school  tax,  no  compulsory  school  attend- 
ance law,  and  no  normal  school.  There 
is  no  education  department,  the  Colonial 
Secretary  being  in  charge  of  school 
matters.  The  government  grants  sub- 
sidies to  local  and  denominational  schools. 


Mohammedan   Countries  —  Here  educa- 
tion consists  almost  entirely  in  reading  the 


Courses  of  Study  43 

Koran,  with  writing  and  sometimes  arith- 
metic. Higher  education  deals  with  gram- 
mar, syntax,  versification,  logic,  canon  law, 
terminology  of  tradition,  exegesis  of  the 
Koran  law,  jurisprudence,  etc.,  with  prac- 
tically nothing  of  science,  mathematics, 
geography,  history,  or  other  subjects  of 
instruction  in  Christian  countries. 

Egypt  —  Organization  is  in  its  initial 
stages  only,  and  there  are  no  schools  out- 
side the  towns.  These  are  chiefly  mosque 
schools,  or  kuttahs,  where  the  Koran  and 
a  little  reading  and  writing  are  taught. 
Higher  education  is  described  in  the  par- 
agraph relating  to  Mohammedan  edu- 
cation. 

China  —  In  China  there  is  no  system  of 
elementary  schools;  the  state  does  not 
provide  instruction,  it  examines  only, 
and  then  only  advanced  students.  Its 
peculiar  type  of  education  is  fairly  well 
spread,  and  as  the  road  to  all  preferment 


44  State  Control  of 

lies  through  the  government  examinations, 
China  is  essentially  democratic. 

The   different  rounds  in  the  ladder  of 
Chinese  education  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Preliminary  studies   in   the  village  or 

clan  schools,  and  with  tutors. 

2.  Haien    Shih,    or    matriculation    tests, 

under  the  eye  of  the  district  magis- 
trate. 

3.  Yuan   Shih,   for   matriculates  for  the 

A.B.  degree. 

4.  Haiang   Shih,   or   provincial  examina- 

tions, at  the  provincial  capitals,  open 
to  A.B.^s  for  A.M. 

5.  Hui   Shih,   or    national    examinations, 

every  three  years  at  Peking,  open  to 
A.M.'s  for  D.Lit. 

6.  Tien    Shih,    or    palace    examinations, 

every  three  years  at  Peking,  open  to 
Doctors. 

7.  Ch'ae    K*ae,  or  imperial   examination, 

in   the    presence    of    the    Emperor, 


Courses  of  Study  45 

open  to  those  who  have  at  least  the 
second  degree.  Those  who  take 
the  highest  rank  are  made  district 
magistrates. 

That  all  this  will  soon  become  a  thing 
of  the  past  is  likely,  however,  as  in  1905 
China,  following  the  example  of  Japan, 
began  the  foundations  of  a  modern  educa- 
tional system  based  on  European  and 
American  models. 


CLASS   V 
THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA 


CLASS  V 

THE   UNITED    STATES    OF   AMERICA 

The  United  States  of  America  —  On  the 
surface  there  might  appear  to  be  no  justi- 
fication for  a  separate  classification  for  the 
United  States,  as  the  various  states  might 
apparently  be  classified  under  the  forego- 
ing subdivisions.  Then,  too,  the  diversity 
of  states  has  given  ground  to  the  assump- 
tion of  many  Europeans  that  there  is  no 
national  system  of  education  in  the  United 
States.  But  if  "by  a  national  system  is 
meant  one  which  among  other  things  meets 
all  the  varied  needs  of  the  nation  and  is 
representative  of  a  common  national  pur- 
pose,*' then  the  system  of  the  United  States 
is  national  to  the  last  degree,  for  we  find 
from  California  to  Maine,  from  Montana 
to  Florida,  common  schools,  high  schools, 
49 


50  State  Control  of 

and  colleges,  practically  all  alike,  with  of 
course  varying  degrees  of  excellence.  But 
the  causes  and  growth  of  unity  in  America 
and  in  the  European  states  are  very  dif- 
ferent. There  it  is  caused  by  the  presence 
of  need  to  meet  external  opposition,  while 
our  feeling  in  regard  to  this  is  expressed 
by  Daniel  Webster :  "  I  apprehend  no 
danger  to  our  country  from  a  foreign  foe." 
The  national  purpose  here  "is  rather 
manifested  in  a  strong  determination  to 
make  a  success  of  democracy  to  enable  the 
people  to  realize  through  self-government 
the  highest  possible  form  of  national  de- 
velopment.'* In  Europe  the  idea  is  to  ed- 
ucate for  state  purposes ;  in  America,  for 
the  individual.  There  the  aim  is  to  pro- 
duce law-abiding  citizens,  to  strengthen 
the  state  by  the  enlightenment  of  its  citi- 
zens. Here,  it  is  to  develop  law-abiding 
and  law-making  citizens,  and  education  is 
an  end  in  itself.     And  in  addition  to  the 


Courses  of  Study  51 

wide  difference  in  spirit,  there  is  an  equal 
difference  in  the  workings  of  educational 
systems.  There  the  state  enforces  its  code 
according  to  its  own  idea.  Here  the  local 
authorities  treat  educational  regulations 
according  to  local  needs  of  advancement. 
Hence,  with  similar  regulations,  it  would 
be  incongruous  to  place  the  American  states 
beside  European  and  other  countries  in  the 
lists  given  above.  Therefore,  I  have  made 
a  separate  classification  for  these  states, 
with  the  subdivisions  given  below. 

{a)    Physiology  and    hygiene,   with    special 

REFERENCE  TO  THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 
AND  narcotics,  IS  PRESCRIBED  IN  ALL  THE 
STATES 

The  value  of  this  is  questioned  by  many  if 
not  by  a  majority  of  those  engaged  in  teach- 
ing, and  the  regulations  in  many  cases  verge 
perilously  upon  the  ridiculous,  as  viewed 
from  the   standpoint   of   the   schoolroom. 


52  State  Control  of 

They  bear  much  stronger  testimony  to  the 
zeal  than  to  the  common  sense  of  the  good 
people  behind  the  movement. 

{b)     No   OTHER   STATE   PRESCRIPTION 

In  a  number  of  states  the  school  law 
does  not  state  what  branches  are  to  be 
taught,  but  it  does  prescribe  the  subjects 
for  examination  of  teachers,  and  these  con- 
stitute the  instruction  in  the  common 
schools.  They  are  also  indirectly  indicated 
by  the  compulsory  school  laws.  There  is 
little  prescription  for  the  high  school,  but 
its  subjects  are  usually  determined  by  uni- 
versity requirements. 

New  York  —  It  is  strange  to  find  highly 
centralized  New  York  in  this  list,  but  it  is 
true  that  the  state  nowhere  prescribes  the 
subjects  to  be  taught,  except  indirectly 
through  the  compulsory  school  law  which 
provides  that  children  coming  under  that 
act  shall  be  instructed  in  reading,  writing, 


Courses  of  Study  53 

arithmetic,  spelling,  English  grammar,  and 
geography.  Local  boards  of  education 
prescribe  courses  of  study,  and  may  add  to 
the  above.  In  case  of  abuse  of  their 
authority,  appeal  may  be  had  to  the  state 
superintendent,  who  has  power  to  withdraw 
the  subjects  complained  of.  However,  the 
examinations  of  the  State  Board  of  Regents 
largely  determine  the  branches  of  instruc- 
tion in  both  common  and  high  schools. 

Ohio  is  a  type  of  extreme  decentraliza- 
tion. Excepting  for  indirect  prescription 
through  the  compulsory  school  law,  all 
authority  is  in  the  hands  of  local  school 
boards. 

Florida  —  County  boards  prescribe 
courses   of   study. 

Iowa  —  Local  boards  prescribe.  Voters 
at  the  annual  meetings  may  add  to  the 
course,  but  may  not  limit  the  board.  Boards 
for  union  high  schools  arrange  courses  sub- 
ject to  approval  of  the  state  superintendent. 


54  State  Control  of 

Nebraska  —  District  boards  prescribe 
courses  which  may  include  all  the  subjects 
necessary  for  a  first  grade  teacher^s  certifi- 
cate. High  schools  are  under  local  author- 
ity also. 

Arkansas  —  The  County  Uniformity  Act 
states  upon  what  subjects  uniform  texts 
are  to  be  selected,  and  thus  indirectly  pre- 
scribes the  branches  to  be  taught. 

Delaware  —  Teachers  must  be  qualified 
to  teach  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  Eng- 
lish grammar,  and  such  branches  as  the 
local  committee  may  select  —  by  the  old 
law  of  1829.  Uniform  texts  to-day  practi- 
cally prescribe  the  branches. 

Alabama  —  Township  board  has  con- 
trol. 

New  Jersey — The  county  superintend- 
ent shall  prepare  a  course  of  study  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent. 

Rhode  Island — The    town    committee 


Courses  of  Study  55 

have  power  to  prescribe  the  courses  under 
direction  of  the  state  commissioner. 

(c)   Prescribed  courses  for  communities 

BELOW   A   FIXED   POPULATION 

Oregon —  In  towns  of  4000  or  more,  the 
schools  are  under  the  entire  control  of 
their  local  boards  of  directors.  All  others 
operate  under  the  rules  of  the  state  board 
of  education,  though  the  state  law  does  not 
directly  specify  the  state  board  control  of 
the  course  of  study.  For  ungraded  schools 
the  prescribed  branches  are  reading,  arith- 
metic, writing,  spelHng,  geography,  gram- 
mar, United  States  history,  elementary 
natural  science,  common  school  literature, 
and  citizenship;  music  may  be  added, 
but  nothing  else  unless  by  vote  of  the 
directors.  High  schools  and  schools  of 
advanced  grade  may  also  have  algebra, 
geometry,  astronomy,  geology,  general 
history,    composition,  natural   philosophy. 


56  State  Control  of 

chemistry,  botany,  bookkeeping,  science 
of  government,  and  vocal  music.  In  actual 
practice  these  schools  are  not  limited  to 
such  subjects  alone.  Free  gymnastics  and 
breathing  exercises  are  recommended  for 
primary  pupils. 

Washington  —  Cities  of  10,000  or  over 
prescribe  courses  of  study  and  kinds  of 
texts  in  addition  to  those  prescribed  by 
the  state  board.  Otherwise  this  state  falls 
in  class  {e). 

(tf)  Instruction  LiMriED  to  certain  branches 

Virginia  —  Instruction  is  limited  to 
spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  geography,  and  no  other 
may  be  given  except  by  special  regula- 
tion of  the  state  board.  It  is  true  that 
any  district  board  with  the  sanction  of  the 
county  board  may  admit  such  branches 
as  qualify  pupils  for  teachers'  examina- 
tions, or  for  entrance  to  higher  institutions 


Courses  of  Study  57 

of  the  state,  but  a  fee  may  be  required 
for  such  instruction.  The  regulations  of 
the  state  board  have  added  history  of 
the  United  States  and  of  Virginia  to  the 
branches  for  common  schools. 

North  Carolina  —  No  studies  shall  be 
taught  except  spelling,  defining,  reading, 
arithmetic,  writing,  English  grammar,  ge- 
ography, and  the  history  of  this  state  and 
the  United  States.  But  it  is  provided  that 
the  school  committee  may  make  special 
arrangements  and  allow  other  branches 
to  be  taught. 

Kentucky  —  The  instruction  prescribed 
by  the  state  board  of  education  shall  em- 
brace reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling, 
English  grammar,  English  composition, 
geography,  civil  government,  history  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  Kentucky.  Trus- 
tees of  graded  schools  may  add  to  these. 

Vermont  —  All  pupils  are  to  be  in- 
structed in  good  behavior,  reading,  writ- 


58  State  Control  of 

ing,  arithmetic,  spelling,  English  grammar, 
geography,  freehand  drawing,  history  and 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
the  geography,  history,  constitution,  and 
principles  of  Vermont.  They  may  be 
taught  vocal  music  also.  In  districts  of 
more  than  one  school  or  in  schools  of 
more  than  one  department,  the  prudential 
committee  may  provide  free  instruction  in 
higher  branches  of  English  study ;  and  if 
there  are  three  or  more  teachers,  ancient 
and  foreign  languages  may  be  taught. 

California  —  Instruction  is  obligatory  by 
law  in  (i)  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
geography,  nature  study,  language  and 
grammar.  United  States  history,  and  civil 
government;  (2)  music,  drawing,  book- 
keeping, and  humane  education  alone  may 
be  required  where  there  are  more  than  100 
children  on  the  census  list.  Other  studies 
may  be  authorized  by  county  or  city 
boards,  but  in  lieu  of  some  **  member  "  of 


Courses  of  Study  59 

the  above,  not  in  addition  thereto.     Teach- 
ing of  manners  and  morals  is  required  also. 

{e)    The  state   prescribes,  or  has  power  to 

PRESCRIBE,   A   UNIFORM   COURSE    OF   STUDY 

Indiana  —  The  management  and  con- 
trol of  the  schools  are  by  the  trustees 
(one  to  each  township),  and  this  is  taken 
to  involve  the  right  to  prescribe  courses 
of  study.  County  boards  adopt  courses 
for  district  schools,  and  cities  arrange 
their  own  courses.  By  the  Haworth  de- 
cision (State  vs,  Haworth,  122  Indiana 
462)  the  legislature  has  power  to  pre- 
scribe courses  of  study  and  the  system 
of  instruction.  The  state  manual,  com- 
piled by  a  committee  of  county  superin- 
tendents in  1892  and  revised  in  1895,  1897, 
and  1899,  provides  a  uniform  course  for 
common  and  high  schools.  The  common 
school  course  is  in  general  use,  but  is  not 
compulsory,  and  the  high  school  course  is 


6o  State  Control  of 

merely  suggestive.  The  statute  of  1869 
requires  that  all  instruction  shall  be  in 
English,  and  that  the  trustees  shall  pro- 
vide teaching  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  ge- 
ography, physiology,  history  of  the  United 
States,  and  good  behavior ;  and  such  addi- 
tional subjects  as  pupils  may  require  and 
the  trustees  may  direct.  If  the  guardians 
of  twenty-five  pupils  demand  it,  there 
must  be  instruction  in  German.  Voters 
at  the  annual  meeting  may  add  other 
branches. 

Arizona  —  The  territorial  board  of  edu- 
cation has  power  to  prescribe  and  to  en- 
force a  course  of  study  for  the  public 
schools.  The  school  laws  prescribe  in- 
struction in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
orthography,  geography,  grammar,  history 
of  the  United  States,  bookkeeping,  indus- 
trial drawing,  and  such  other  studies  as 
the  local  boards  may  prescribe;  but  no 


Courses  of  Study  6r 

other  studies  are  to  be  pursued  to  the 
neglect  or  exclusion  of  the  studies  enumer- 
ated. Instruction  in  manners  and  morals 
is  to  be  given  throughout  the  school 
course,  and  all  schools  are  to  be  taught 
the  English  language.  The  territorial 
board  lays  down  minute  regulations  for 
teachers  and  pupils,  classifies  schools  as 
primary  and  grammar,  and  states  the  re- 
quirements for  promotion.  Instruction  in 
branches  higher  than  those  enumerated 
is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  principal. 
Maryland — Regulations  of  the  state 
board.  The  system  of  instruction  shall 
embrace  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  history  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Maryland,  general 
history,  constitution  of  the  United  States 
and  of  Maryland,  English  grammar,  book- 
keeping, algebra,  geometry,  physiology, 
natural  philosophy,  drawing,  vocal  music, 
domestic    economy,   and   good  behavior; 


62  State  Control  of 

also  the  German  language  and  elements  of 
agriculture  when  ordered  by  the  county 
board. 

The  work  for  each  grade,  from  i  to  6 
inclusive,  is  prescribed  with  some  subjects, 
as  drawing,  needlework,  and  domestic 
economy,  recommended  but  not  obligatory. 
The  time  is  prescribed  for  each  class  in  a 
mixed  school;  as,  ist  class  —  one  lesson  of 
twenty  minutes,  and  three  of  fifteen  each. 
Schedules  for  high  schools  and  higher 
classes  of  graded  schools  are  recommended 
but  not  prescribed. 

Michigan  —  The  district  boards  specify 
the  subjects  to  be  pursued  in  the  schools 
in  addition  to  those  prescribed  by  law,  — 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling,  geog- 
raphy, grammar,  national  and  state  his- 
tory, and  civil  government. 

By  the  act  of  1897  the  state  superintend- 
ent is  authorized  to  prepare  for  district 
schools  a  course  of  study  comprising  the 


Courses  of  Study  63 

branches  then  required  for  third  grade  cer- 
tificates, which  shall  be  known  as  "  The 
Agriculture  College,"  completion  and  di- 
ploma to  admit  to  the  freshman  course  of 
the  Agricultural  College. 

The  state  manual  of  studies  prepared  by 
a  committee  of  county  secretaries  is  not 
compulsory.  High  school  courses  are 
largely  determined  by  the  requirements  of 
the  state  university. 

Minnesota  —  Local  boards  prescribe 
courses  of  study,  but  the  state  law  pre- 
scribes the  branches  to  be  taught. 

There  is  a  system  of  state  aid  for  state 
graded  schools,  but  schools  receiving  such 
aid  must  conform  to  the  state  requirements. 
Such  high  schools  must  have  a  course  of 
study  embracing  branches  prerequisite  for 
admission  to  the  University  of  Minnesota. 
The  state  course  of  study,  time-tables,  etc., 
are  not  compulsory,  but  are  to  serve  as 
models. 


64  State  Control  of 

There  may  be  introduced  in  the  schools 
the  elements  of  social  and  moral  science, 
including  industry,  order,  economy,  punc- 
tuality, patience,  self-denial,  health,  purity, 
temperance,  cleanliness,  honesty,  truth, 
justice,  politeness,  peace,  fidelity,  philan- 
thropy, patriotism,  self-reliance,  self- 
respect,  hope,  perseverance,  cheerfulness, 
courage,  gratitude,  pity,  mercy,  kindness, 
conscience,  reflection,  and  will. 

Nevada  —  The  state  board  of  education 
shall  prescribe  and  cause  to  be  adopted 
the  course  of  study  in  the  public  schools. 
The  state  board  prescribes  uniform  texts 
in  the  principal  studies  in  the  public 
schools;  to  wit:  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, spelling,  language,  grammar,  orthog- 
raphy, history  of  the  United  States,  physi- 
ology, and  drawing ;  also  for  schools  in 
which  the  trustees  may  add  the  following : 
algebra,  geometry,  physics,  astronomy, 
physical     geography,     chemistry,     Latin, 


Courses  of  Study  65 

rhetoric,  literature,  English  history,  gen- 
eral history,  civics,  geology,  bookkeeping, 
and  music. 

Montana  —  The  state  superintendent 
shall  prepare  and  prescribe  a  course  of 
study  for  all  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 
District  boards  of  trustees  have  power  to 
determine  what  branches,  if  any,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  required  by  law,  shall  be 
taught,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
county  superintendent.  The  branches 
prescribed  by  law  are  reading,  penman- 
ship, written  arithmetic,  mental  arithmetic, 
geography,  English  grammar,  history  of 
the  United  States,  civics  of  the  United 
States  and  of  Montana.  Attention  in  the 
whole  course  is  to  be  given  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  manners,  the  laws  of  health,  physi- 
cal exercise,  and  the  ventilation  and  tem- 
perature of  the  schoolroom. 

South  Carolina  —  The  state  board  of 
education  has  the  power  to  prescribe  and 


66  State  Control  of 

enforce  the  course  of  study  for  the  free 
public  schools.  It  is  the  duty  of  county 
boards  and  boards  of  trustees  to  have 
taught  as  far  as  practicable,  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  orthography,  geography, 
English  grammar,  elements  of  agriculture, 
history  of  the  United  States  and  of  South 
Carolina,  morals  and  good  behavior,  alge- 
bra, English  literature,  and  such  others  as 
the  state  board  may  from  time  to  time 
direct. 

North  Dakota  —  The  state  superintend- 
ent shall  prepare  and  prescribe  a  course 
of  study  for  public  and  normal  schools. 
Each  teacher  shall  give  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling,  lan- 
guage, English  grammar,  geography. 
United  States  history,  and  civil  govern- 
ment. District  boards  determine  addi- 
tional branches.  The  English  language 
alone  is  to  be  used  in  the  schools. 
Schools  desiring  to  be  state  high  schools 


Courses  of  Study  67 

must  have  the  branches  prescribed  by 
the  state  high  school  board  for  the  first 
two  years  of  the  course. 

A  constitutional  provision  requires  in- 
struction as  far  as  is  practicable  in  those 
branches  of  knowledge  which  tend  to 
impress  truthfulness,  temperance,  purity, 
public  spirit,  and  respect  for  honest  labor 
of  every  kind.  Recent  legislation  provides 
for  teaching  in  the  public  schools  the  hu- 
mane treatment  of  animals. 

Tennessee  —  The  primary  schools  are  to 
have  five  grades,  with  a  system  of  promo- 
tion arranged  by  the  county  superintend- 
ent according  to  the  general  regulations 
of  the  state  superintendent.  Secondary 
schools  include  these  five  grades  and  three 
more.  Primary  school  subjects  are  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  orthography, 
grammar,  geography,  history  of  Tennessee, 
history  and  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  vocal  music,  and  elocution.     Sec- 


68  State  Control  of 

ondary  schools,  besides  the  above,  include 
elementary  geology  of  Tennessee,  elemen- 
tary principles  of  agriculture,  algebra, 
plane  geometry,  natural  philosophy,  book- 
keeping, physiology  and  hygiene,  civil  gov- 
ernment, and  rhetoric. 

West  Virginia  —  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
state  superintendent  to  prescribe  a  manual 
and  grade  a  course  of  study  of  primary  in- 
struction for  country  and  village  schools. 
In  primary  schools  the  following  are 
required:  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  or- 
thography, English  grammar,  and  hy- 
giene. Instruction  may  be  given  in 
general  history.  United  States  and  state 
history,  general  and  state  geography, 
single  entry  bookkeeping,  civil  govern- 
ment, and  in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching. 
It  is  the  duty  of  teachers  and  boards  of 
education  to  provide  moral  training. 

A  board  of  education  has  no  power  to 
add  any  further  subjects  nor  require  them 


Courses  of  Study  69 

to  be  taught  [opinion  from  state  office]. 
The  theory  and  art  of  teaching  is  not  a  sub- 
ject for  primary  schools,  but  teachers  have 
to  pass  an  examination  on  it  [opinion]. 

Wisconsin  —  The  superintendent  deter- 
mines the  course  of  study  for  ungraded 
schools.  District  or  township  boards  de- 
termine the  organization,  management,  and 
control  of  district  schools  and  additional 
subjects  to  those  prescribed,  which  are 
orthography,  orthoepy,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  history 
and  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  constitution  of  Wisconsin.  In- 
struction is  to  be  in  English,  but  a  school- 
board  may  have  a  foreign  language  taught 
for  one  hour  a  day.  The  state  superin- 
tendent prepares  the  course  for  free  high 
schools.  The  course  may  be  modified  with 
his  consent,  but  must  include  the  theory 
and  art  of  teaching,  and  the  organization, 
management,  and  course  of  study  for  un- 


70  State  Control  of 

graded  schools.  A  school-board  may  have 
a  foreign  language  taught  for  one  hour 
each  day. 

Missouri — By  the  law  of  1900  county 
superintendents  and  district  trustees  are 
to  enforce  the  state  course  of  study  pre- 
pared by  the  state  board  of  education. 
No  pupil  may  enter  a  central  high  school 
who  has  not  completed  the  common  school 
course  in  descriptive  geography,  practical 
arithmetic,  mental  arithmetic,  language 
lessons  and  elementary  grammar,  United 
States  history,  and  physiology. 

Louisiana  —  The  state  board  shall  give 
such  directions  as  it  may  see  proper  as 
to  the  branches  of  study  which  shall  be 
taught.  But  the  following  are  required  in 
every  district :  orthography,  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  geography,  grammar. 
United  States  history,  laws  of  health, 
and  physical  education.  In  certain  places 
instruction  in  French  may  also  be  given. 


Courses  of  Study  71 

Maine  —  The  state  superintendent  is 
required  to  prescribe  the  studies  to  be 
taught  in  the  common  schools,  reserving 
to  town  committees  the  right  to  prescribe 
additional  studies.  In  free  high  schools 
the  course  of  study  shall  embrace  the  ordi- 
nary English  academic  studies  taught  in 
secondary  schools,  especially  the  natural 
sciences  in  their  application  to  mechanics, 
manufacturing,  and  agriculture;  but  the 
ancient  or  modern  languages  and  music 
shall  not  be  taught  therein  except  by  di- 
rection of  the  superintending  school  com- 
mittee having  charge  thereof. 

Massachusetts — Reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  geography,  drawing,  his- 
tory of  the  United  States,  and  good  be- 
havior are  prescribed  for  all  common 
schools ;  algebra,  vocal  music,  agriculture, 
and  sewing  shall  be  taught  by  lectures  or 
otherwise  in  all  public  schools  in  which 
the  school  committee  deem  it  expedient. 


72  State  Control  of 

Every  town  may,  and  every  town  of  500 
families  shall,  maintain  a  high  school  in 
which  shall  be  taught  general  history, 
bookkeeping,  surveying,  geometry,  natural 
philosophy,  chemistry,  botany,  and  the 
civil  polity  of  this  commonwealth  and  of 
the  United  States.  Every  town  of  4000  or 
more  shall  prescribe  in  addition  Greek  and 
French,  astronomy,  geology,  rhetoric,  logic, 
political  economy,  intellectual  and  moral 
science.  Subjects  for  evening  schools  are 
prescribed. 

(/)     A   MINIMUM    PRESCRIBED 

Schools  of  this  division  are  under  the 
entire  control  of  local  boards,  who  may 
in  addition  to  the  minimum  prescribed  by 
law  have  taught  any  branches  they  choose. 
The  prescribed  branches  are  those  for  the 
lowest  grade  of  teachers'  examinations  in 
Colorado y  Illinois y  and  Mississippi ;  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  spelling,  English 
grammar,    and     geography    in    Connecti- 


Courses  of  Study  73 

ctity  New  Mexico,  Kansas,  Oklahoma, 
and  Pennsylvania,  In  Kansas  the  course 
of  study  for  the  county  high  schools  is  pre- 
scribed for  three  courses  of  three  years 
each.  In  Pennsylvania  the  courses  in 
schools  receiving  state  aid  are  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  state  superintendent, 
and  such  schools  must  employ  teachers 
legally  certified  to  teach  algebra,  geome- 
try, etc.,  the  subjects  usually  found  in 
high  schools. 

In  addition  to  these  branches,  Georgia 
requires  agriculture  and  civil  government ; 
South  Dakota  adds  United  States  history 
and  civil  government.  Texas  adds  compo- 
sition. Utah  requires  the  metric  system 
and  moral  instruction  free  from  sectarian 
control;  it  is  the  duty  of  the  county  super- 
intendent to  see  that  the  pupils  are  in- 
structed in  the  branches  required  by  law. 
Wyoming  adds  history  of  the  United 
States,  civil  government,  and  the  humane 


74  State  Control  of 

treatment  of  animals.  The  state  super- 
intendent advises  as  to  the  courses  of 
study. 

New  Hampshire  —  The  local  authorities 
may  permit  or  prescribe  algebra,  geometry, 
surveying,  bookkeeping,  philosophy,  chem- 
istry, and  natural  history,  or  may  permit 
any  of  these,  and  add  other  suitable 
studies. 

The  foregoing  does  not  pretend  to  be  a 
thorough  or  exact  classification,  and  others 
would  probably  place  various  of  the  states 
differently.  The  distinctions  are  not  well 
marked,  and  the  classification  is  more  or 
less  arbitrary;  but  these  differences  after 
all  amount  to  very  little,  for  they  are  much 
less  in  the  actual  working  of  the  schools 
than  the  statutes  or  codes  would  imply, 
the  schools  of  the  whole  country  being 
practically  homogeneous.  Moreover,  here 
as  elsewhere  in  American  life,  the  law  is 
not  enforced  to  the  letter,  but  is  interpreted 


Courses  of  Study  75 

and  carried  out  by  the  local  authorities 
according  to  their  means  and  necessities. 
The  educational  affairs  of  the  county,  the 
largest  subdivision  of  the  state,  are  admin- 
istered by  the  county  superintendent,  usu- 
ally an  elective  officer ;  or  where  an  appoint- 
ive officer,  usually  equally  representative 
of  the  people,  thus  further  insuring  educa- 
tion as  an  expression  of  the  popular  will. 
The  complete  independence  of  cities, 
large  and  small,  in  general  is  to  be  noted, 
and  also  the  almost  entire  lack  of  high 
school  prescription  —  other  than  for  town- 
ship or  county  schools.  It  is  the  policy 
of  the  state  to  encourage  and  stimulate 
popular  education  rather  than  to  attempt 
its  control, —  to  recognize  the  independ- 
ence of  the  people  in  their  local  self- 
government.  And  if  political  democracy 
in  America,  on  trial  before  the  world,  is 
justifying  itself,  no  less  so  is  educational 
democracy.      The   school   district  is    the 


76  State  Control  of 

real  political  unit  (for  historical  reasons 
it  is  the  county  in  the  South),  and  the 
extreme  ideal  of  democracy  is  represented 
in  those  states  where  the  electors  at  the 
annual  school  meeting  have  the  right  to  add 
branches  to  the  school  course.  "Spon- 
taneity is  the  keynote  of  education  in  the 
United  States.  Its  varied  form,  its  un- 
even progress,  its  lack  of  symmetry,  its 
practical  effectiveness,  are  all  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  has  sprung  unbidden  and  un- 
forced from  the  needs  and  aspirations  of 
the  people.  Local  preference  and  indi- 
vidual initiative  have  been  ruling  forces. 
What  men  have  wished  for,  that  they  have 
done.  They  have  not  waited  for  State 
assistance,  or  for  State  control.** 

That  the  common  schools  of  the  country 
are  homogeneous  has  been  stated,  and  the 
high  schools  are  no  less  so.  In  view  of 
the  vast  area  of  this  country,  its  varying 
conditions,   and    numerous    political   divi- 


Courses  of  Study  77 

sions,  this  seems  almost  marvelous  and  we 
inquire  as  to  the  reason.  It  is  that  edu- 
cational progress  has  been  left  largely  in 
the  hands  of  the  collective  body  of  educa- 
tors. Unity  among  these  has  been  brought 
about  through  the  influence  of  such  leaders 
as  Horace  Mann  and  Colonel  Parker, 
through  educational  books,  the  universities, 
the  National  Educational  Association, 
teachers'  associations,  teachers'  institutes, 
educational  magazines,  and  the  possibility 
of  teachers  in  any  state  securing  employ- 
ment in  any  other.  The  influence  of  the 
National  Bureau  of  Education  is  not  to  be 
omitted,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
this  influence  is  exerted  through  suggestion 
and  not  by  authority. 

It  may  be  seen  that  the  foregoing  may 
be  formulated  into  an  argument  against 
centralization,  and  it  had  been  the  writer's 
purpose  to  adduce  further  argument  were 
this   chapter  not  too  long  already,  —  not 


78  State  Control  of 

against  centralization  everywhere,  but 
against  it  in  this  country  ;  for  while  under 
an  autocratic  or  paternal  government  where 
the  initiative  comes  from  above  it  may  be 
desirable,  it  is  not  necessary  in  the  United 
States  where  the  government  is  from  below. 
The  present  tendency  is  toward  centraliza- 
tion, —  a  tendency  which  might  be  deplored 
were  it  not  certain  that  the  principle  of 
local  self-government  is  too  firmly  fixed  ever 
to  be  subverted.  The  evolution  is  likely 
to  be  into  some  form  sufficiently  elastic, 
but  more  efficient  than  that  which  holds 
to-day. 

The  arguments  for  centralization  in  brief 
are  economy,  uniformity,  and  a  higher 
standard  of  education. 

Economy  to  a  certain  extent  I  grant, 
but  the  very  wastefulness  of  the  past  has 
had  valuable  results,  and  from  its  experi- 
ences is  developing  a  rational  system  along 
characteristic  American  lines. 


Courses  of  Study  79 

Uniformity  is  not  to  be  desired.  It  pro- 
duces a  mechanical  attitude  and  fosters 
dependence.  It  is  un-American  and  strikes 
at  the  very  root  of  democracy,  —  the  ini- 
tiative of  the  individual. 

It  may  be  admitted  that  a  temporary 
standard  may  be  reached  more  quickly, 
that  defects  may  at  once  be  removed  by 
state  intervention,  but  these  things  depend 
upon  the^  people  finally,  and  the  gains  will 
be  more  secure  in  the  long  run  if  they 
are  left  to  the  community.  Surely  the 
boundless  confidence  in  the  people  ex- 
pressed by  Lincoln  and  other  statesmen 
is  not  misplaced.  A  perusal  of  the  re- 
ports of  state  superintendents  from  their 
early  issues  until  to-day  reveals  wonder- 
ful progress,  —  a  progress  as  great  as 
that  of  state-controlled  European  systems. 
And  in  Europe  itself,  to  those  who  refer 
to  German  progress,  the  opponents  of 
centralization  can  point  to  Denmark,  un- 


8o  State  Control 

surpassed  in  literacy  and  prosperity,  or  to 
Finland  before  it  succumbed  to  the  anaes- 
thetic of  Russian  autocracy.  But  com- 
parisons are  of  little  value,  for  we  must 
finally  return  to  the  principle  laid  down  in 
the  introduction  to  this  work,  —  that  an 
educational  system  is  merely  one  manifes- 
tation of  the  activities  or  life  of  a  people. 


RECENT   LEGISLATION 


RECENT   LEGISLATION 

Massachusetts  gives  the  school  com- 
mittee power  to  supervise  and  control  all 
athletic  organizations  composed  of  pupils 
of  the  school  and  bearing  the  name  of  the 
school.  It  also  may  determine  directly 
or  through  an  authorized  representative 
under  what  conditions  such  organizations 
may  enter  into  competition  with  similar 
organizations  in  other  schools. 

The  last  legislature  has  provided  for  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  which  shall 
have  authority  relating  to  the  establish- 
ment and  supervision  of  independent  in- 
dustrial schools  throughout  the  state. 

It  has  also  authorized  the  Agricultural 
College  to  establish  a  normal  department 
to  instruct  teachers  in  the  elements  of 
agriculture. 

Pennsylvania  gives  boards  of  education 


84  State  Control 

the  power  to  establish  and  maintain  one 
or  more  schools  for  the  instruction  of 
pupils  in  the  useful  branches  of  the  me- 
chanic arts,  athletics,  and  kindred  subjects, 
and  to  provide  the  necessary  buildings, 
etc.  She  also  provides  for  a  system  of 
humane  education. 

Oklahoma  provides  for  a  scheme  of  ethi- 
cal and  humane  education  for  the  public 
schools. 

Arizona  provides  for  instruction  in  man- 
ual training  and  domestic  science  in  the 
pubHc  schools. 

Ke7itucky  recently  appropriated  ;?20,- 
ooo  for  various  matters  including  indus- 
trial training  for  colored  persons. 

Minnesota  provides  for  county  schools 
of  agriculture  and  domestic  science. 

New  Jersey  provides  for  industrial 
schools. 

Wisconsin  provides  for  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  in  the  public  schools. 


APPENDIX 

RELIGIOUS  INSTRUCTION 


RELIGIOUS   INSTRUCTION 

Australia — New  South  Wales — Teach- 
ing is  nonsectarian,  but  includes  general 
religious  instruction  (except  where  guard- 
ian objects),  using  a  text-book  or  the  scrip- 
ture history  lessons  in  the  readers. 

Western  Australia  —  Similar  to  New 
South  Wales,  —  special  religious  instruc- 
tion limited  to  half  an  hour  a  day. 

Victoria  —  No  teacher  shall  give  other 
than  secular  instruction  in  any  state  school 
building.  May  have  religious  instruction 
after  the  close  of  school  by  some  person 
other  than  the  teacher. 

Queensland  —  Similar  to  Victoria ;  but 
those  giving  religious  instruction  must  have 
permission  of  the  Minister  of  Education. 

South  Australia  —  Schools  secular;  may 
87 


88  State  Control  of 

have  scripture  reading,  Protestant  or 
Douay  version,  before  the  regular  open- 
ing; attendance  on  this  is  not  compul- 
sory. 

Tasmania  —  First  half  hour  may  be  de- 
voted to  sacred  history,  —  unsectarian  and 
confined  to  passages  from  state-approved 
books.  A  "  conscience  clause''  permits  the 
withdrawal  from  this  of  pupils  whose  guard- 
ians object.  There  may  also  be  special 
instruction  by  clergymen  in  special  class 
rooms,  or  after  hours  in  schoolrooms,  but 
not  on  two  consecutive  days  to  children  of 
any  one  denomination. 

Austria  —  Religious  instruction  is  given 
throughout  the  school  course,  elementary 
and  secondary;  special  teachers  are  usu- 
ally in  charge. 

Argentine  Republic  —  No  provision  for 
religious  instruction. 

Brazil  —  No  provision  for  religious  in- 
struction. 


Courses  of  Study  89 

Bermuda — In  government  schools,  pro- 
vided for  with  a  "conscience  clause." 

Belgium  —  Clergy  may  give  religious 
instruction  or  provide  for  its  being  given 
by  teacher  or  other  person  during  the  first 
or  last  half  hour  of  the  school  day.  Par- 
ents may  have  children  excused  by  request. 

British  Guiana  —  Religious  instruction 
allowed,  but  any  scholar  may  be  excused 
without  forfeiting  any  other  school  in- 
struction. 

Central  America  —  None  provided  for. 

Cape  Colony  —  Allowable,  with  a  "con- 
science clause." 

Canada  —  British  Columbia  —  Secular 
and  nonsectarian ;  Lord's  Prayer  may  be 
used  in  opening  and  closing. 

Manitoba — Teachers  permitted  to  read 
selected  forms  of  prayer  and  scripture  for 
opening  and  closing  exercises. 

Ontario  —  Same  as  Manitoba. 

Nova  Scotia  —  Devotional  exercises  al- 


90  State  Control  of 

lowed  if  no  parents  object  in  writing;  may 
then  be  allowed  if  so  arranged  as  to  give 
no  offense. 

New  Bnmswick  —  May  open  and  close 
with  Lord's  Prayer  and  scripture  readings 
(Protestant  or  Catholic  version).  Purely 
voluntary  and  no  pupil  required  to  attend 
if  contrary  to  will  of  guardian. 

Prince  Edward  Island — No  sectarian 
or  religious  teaching;  principles  of  moral- 
ity to  be  inculcated. 

Quebec  —  Roman  Catholic  schools  have 
regular  instruction  in  religion  and  cate- 
chism ;  Protestant  schools  may  have  first 
half  hour  of  day  for  religious  instruction. 

Territories  —  May  open  and  close  with 
Lord's  Prayer.  May  have  religious  in- 
struction last  half  hour  if  permitted  or  de- 
sired by  trustees. 

Denmark — Religious  instruction  through- 
out school  course  ;  children  may  be  ex- 
cused by  request  of  parents. 


Courses  of  Study  91 

England  —  A  graded  course  as  in  other 
subjects,  but  un sectarian  ;  a  "conscience 
clause ''  gives  freedom  of  withdrawal  from 
religious  instruction  or  exercises. 

Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales  are  similar 
to  England. 

France  —  Public  schools  are  purely  sec- 
ular.    Moral  instruction  is  prescribed. 

Finland — Scripture  instruction  and  cat- 
echism required  in  public  schools* 

Greece  —  Religious  history  and  cate- 
chism part  of  course  in  Demotic  and  Hel- 
lenic schools. 

British  Guiana  —  Allowed  with  a  "  con- 
science clause.** 

Hungary  —  Religion  and  morality  are 
obligatory  subjects.  In  public  elementary 
and  secondary  schools  religious  instruc- 
tion is  given  by  external  teachers  of  va- 
rious sects. 

Italy  —  Moral,  not  religious,  instruction 
required  in  course. 


92  State  Control  of 

India  —  No  religious  instruction  in 
public  schools. 

Japan —  Moral  instruction  only. 

Jamaica  —  Allowed  in  government 
schools,  with  a  "  conscience  clause." 

Mexico  —  No  religious  instruction. 

Norway  —  In  primary  schools  the  only 
standard  fixed  by  law  is  that  of  religious 
knowledge;  religious  instruction  through- 
out secondary  and  normal  courses. 

Netherlands  —  Certain  hours  set  apart 
for  religious  instruction  by  different  clergy ; 
teachers  may  not  give  religious  instruc- 
tion. 

New  Zealand  —  Religious  instruction 
may  be  given  out  of  school  hours. 

Natal  —  School  opened  with  prayer; 
regular  religious  instruction  of  an  unsec- 
tarian  kind  may  be  permitted,  but  is  not 
compulsory. 

Newfoundland  —  In  denominational 
schools    each    denomination    teaches    its 


Courses  of  Study  93 

own  dogmas,  but  in  state-aided  schools 
not  to  children  whose  parents  object. 

Portugal  —  Instructions  require  that  only 
the  essential  points  of  the  catechism  (R.C.) 
be  taught,  though  teachers  may  extend  the 
instruction.  Non-Catholics  not  required 
to  attend  religious  instruction. 

Germany  —  Prussia  —  Regular  instruc- 
tion from  two  to  four  hours  a  week  through- 
out course ;  slight  difference  for  Protestants 
and  Roman  Catholics ;  Jews  also  provided 
for.  Pupils  must  receive  instruction  in 
the  faith  of  their  parents. 

Russia  —  The  official  church  has  great 
control  of  the  schools  and  provides  re- 
ligious instruction  throughout. 

Servia  —  Religious  instruction  through- 
out the  school  course. 

Switzerland  —  Biblical  history  and 
morals  throughout. 

Sweden  —  Required  in  primary,  normal, 
and  secondary  schools  throughout. 


94  State  Control 

United  States.  —  No  religious  prescrip- 
tion ;  religious  instruction  not  allowed  in 
public  schools.  Scripture  reading  and 
hymn  singing  form  part  of  the  opening 
exercises  in  many  schools.  In  1896,  of 
946  superintendents  reporting,  454  have 
Bible  reading  in  all  their  schools,  295  in 
part,  and  197  in  none.  In  some  states, 
as  in  Nebraska,  it  is  illegal  to  have  even 
Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools.  The 
majority  of  states  are  silent  on  this  phase, 
and  Bible  reading  for  opening  exercises  is 
largely  a  matter  of  custom. 


GRADING  OF  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 


GRADING   OF   SCHOOL    SYSTEMS 

Austria  —  Kindergarten  :  2  to  6  years 
of  age. 

Elementary:  People's  schools  of  5 
classes  of  i  year  each;  citizens*  schools 
of  3  years  additional. 

Ungraded  schools  of  2  or  more  classes. 

Normal  schools  of  2  or  3  years ;  admit 
by  examination  from  elementary  schools 
and  prepare  for  teaching  in  same. 

Secondary  schools  not  connected  with 
elementary  schools  and  divided  into  gym- 
nasien  of  8  years  and  realschulen  of  7 
years. 

Enter  university  from  gymnasien. 

Commercial,  technical,  industrial  contin- 
uation schools,  etc.,  also. 

Australia  —  New  South  Wales  —  Infant 
schools  of  2  years. 

97 


gS  State  Control  of 

Primary:  First  class,  i|  years;  second 
class,  I  year;  third  class,  2  years;  fourth 
and  fifth  classes,  i  year  each. 

Secondary:  High  schools  admit  by  ex- 
amination from  third  class. 

Superior  schools  are  those  doing  work 
above  the  third  class. 

Enter  university  at  Sydney  by  examina- 
tion from  high  school. 

Primary  schools  are  classified  as  first 
class,  second  class,  etc.,  by  attendance, 
' —  first  class  having  600  or  more  ;  second 
class,  400  to  600,  etc. 

Training  schools  offer  a  2  years'  course 
and  admit  after  a  4  years*  pupil-teacher 
course. 

Victoria  —  Public  schools  have  6  stand- 
ards of  I  year  each. 

Training  school  gives  I  year,  admitting 
after  pupil-teacher  course. 

University  of  Melbourne.  No  public 
secondary  schools. 


Courses  of  Study  99 

Queensland — Primary:  First  class,  2 
years ;  second  class,  i  J  years  ;  third  class, 
I J  years;  fourth  class,  i|- years;  fifth  class, 
\\  years  ;  sixth  class,  \\  years. 

Eight  classes  of  primary  schools  classi- 
fied by  attendance,  —  first  of  over  800  to 
eighth  of  30  or  40. 

Teachers  take  pupil-teacher  training 
course  of  4  years. 

No  training  school. 

Secondary:  High  schools  of  3  or  4 
years. 

No  university. 

South  Australia  —  Primary  schools  : 
Classes  i,  2,  3,  4,  and  5  of  i  year  each. 

Training  college  admits  after  4  or  3 
years*  pupil-teacher  course. 

Primary  schools  divided  by  attendance 
into  12  classes,  —  first  class  of  600  or  more 
to  twelfth  class  of  20  to  30. 

No  state  secondary  schools. 

University  at  Adelaide. 


loo  State  Control  of 

Western  Australia  —  Infant  schools  of 
2  years. 

Elementary  schools  of  standards  i,  2,  3, 
4>  5>  ^>  7>  of  I  year  each,  and  may  be  an 
ex-7  in  addition. 

No  training  schools,  but  pupil-teacher 
course  of  4  years. 

No  state  secondary  schools  nor  univer- 
sity (1901). 

Tasmania  —  First  class  of  2  years, 
then  classes  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6  of  i  year 
each. 

4  years*  pupil-teacher  course  being  from 
class  5. 

No  free  state  education.  No  state  sec- 
ondary education. 

University  of  Tasmania. 

Argentina  —  Kindergarten  from  3  to  6 
years  of  age. 

Public  schools  of  8  or  9  classes  of  i  year 
each  in  3  divisions,  —  primary,  elementary, 
and  graduated  (similar  to  Massachusetts). 


Courses  of  Study  ici  ; 

Complete  above  to  enter  normal  school 
of  4  years  or  kindergarten  normal  of  2 
years. 

Superior  normal  for  secondary  and 
normal  teachers. 

Secondary :  National  colleges  of  6  years* 
course.  Leaving  examination  admits  to  uni- 
versities of  6  years*  courses,  also  to  mili- 
tary academy,  to  schools  of  commerce,  of 
mines,  of  pilots,  and  of  agriculture. 

Brazil  —  Primary  schools  are  divided 
into  first  grade  and  second  grade ;  the  first 
grade  has  6  classes  of  i  year  each  and  is 
in  3  divisions,  —  elementary,  intermediate, 
and  higher ;  these  are  of  2  years  each  and 
include  the  ages  from  7  to  13.  The  second 
grade  has  3  classes  of  i  year  each,  from 
13  to  15  years  of  age.  Diploma  from  first 
grade  admits  to  secondary  school,  and  from 
second  grade  to  normal. 

Secondary:  7  classes  of  i  year  each; 
graduation  admits  to  the  university,  com- 


ro2  State  Control  of 

prised  of  schools  of  law,  medicine,  etc., 
located  in  different  cities. 

British  Guiana  —  Infant  schools  from 
3  to  7  years  of  age,  followed  by  8  stand- 
ards of  I  year  each.  The  upper  grades 
of  these  include  a  number  of  secondary 
studies. 

Cape  Colony  —  Elementary :  Standard  B 
and  standards  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  ex- 
standards  of  I  year  each. 

Training  schools  of  i  year.  Pupil- 
teacher  course  of  3  years,  which  may  be 
extended  to  5  years. 

Secondary  :  Same  as  elementary  up  to 
and  including  standard  5,  followed  by 
high   school   standards   A,  B,  C,  and  D. 

University  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
is  merely  an  examining  body. 

Canada  —  Ontario — Elementary:  Forms 
I,  2,  3,  and  4  of  2  years  each,  and  may  be 
form  5  of  I  or  2  years,  form  5  being  the 
same  as  first  year  of  high  school. 


Courses  of  Study  103 

Enter  high  school  by  examination  from 
form  4. 

Secondary:  High  schools  divided  into 
forms  I,  2,  3,  and  4  of  i  year  each.  Ex- 
amination from  form  3  admits  to  model 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  the  universi- 
ties. Examination  from  form  4  admits  to 
sophomore  class  in  university  and  to  the 
normal  college. 

Model  schools  with  a  6  months*  profes- 
sional training  give  a  3  years'  license  to 
teach  in  public  schools  (elementary),  and 
normal  schools  with  a  year's  professional 
training  give  a  life  certificate  to  teach  in 
elementary  schools.  The  normal  college 
with  a  year's  work  permits  to  teach  in 
high  schools. 

Nova  Scotia  —  Public  school  (elemen- 
tary), 8  grades  of  i  year  each. 

Secondary :  High  school  of  4  grades, 
known  as  grades  9,  10,  11,  and  12  of  pub- 
lic  school   or   D,    C,  B,  and   A   of   high 


I04  State  Control  of 

school.  Examination  from  ii  or  B  ad- 
mits to  colleges  and  universities. 

Normal  schools  admit  on  high  school 
certificate  or  teacher*s  license. 

Manitoba  —  Public  schools  (elementary), 
8  grades  of  i  year  each ;  may  add  i  grade 
further. 

Intermediate  schools  same,  but  include 
preparation  for  third  class  academic  cer- 
tificate. 

Secondary  :  Collegiate  schools  of  4  years 
prepare  for  University  of  Manitoba  and 
second  and  first  class  academic  certifi- 
cates. Normal  schools  admit  on  third, 
second,  and  first  class  academic  certifi- 
cates and  prepare  for  same  grade  of  pro- 
fessional certificates. 

British  Columbia  —  Public  schools  (ele- 
mentary), 4  forms  of  usually  2  years  each. 

Secondary :  High  school  of  4  forms  of 
I  year  each,  prepare  for  various  Canadian 
universities. 


Courses  of  Study  105 

No  normal  school  or  university  (1901). 

Prince  Edward  Island — Primary,  ad- 
vanced grade,  and  first  class  schools. 
Complete  course  classified  by  readers  i  to 
6,  about  2  years  each. 

One  college  and  normal  school  amalga- 
mated.    No  university. 

New  Brunswick — Common  schools  (ele- 
mentary), grades  i  to  8  of  i  year  each. 
Superior  add  to  these. 

Secondary:  Grades  9  to  12  inclusive. 
Examination  from  1 1  to  enter  the  univer- 
sity. 

Quebec  —  Schools  are  Roman  Catholic  or 
Protestant.  Elementary  are  of  4  grades. 
Model  schools  add  2  years,  fifth  and 
sixth,  and  prepare  teachers  for  elementary 
schools  and  entrance  to  universities. 

Secondary :  Academy  of  2  years  ac- 
cepted for  first  2  years  of  university. 

Montreal  has  elementary  schools  of  6 
years ;   senior  schools,  which  add  3  years ; 


io6  State  Control  of 

and  high  schools,  real  secondary  schools, 
of  lo  years. 

Denmark  —  Elementary  schools  of  6  to 
8  years,  followed  by  continuation  school 
(evening).  Enter  normal  school  of  3  years 
from  elementary. 

Secondary:  Preparatory  to  age  of  12; 
then  Latin  course  of  6  years,  or  real  with 
4  years'  course.  Praliminar  completes  real, 
and  artium  Latin,  and  admits  to  university. 

People's  schools  for  young  men  and 
women  are  adult  boarding  schools. 

England  —  Infant  classes  from  3  to  7 
years  of  age. 

Elementary :  Standards  i  to  7  inclusive 
and  ex-7,  of  i  year  each. 

Training  colleges,  2  years*  course, 
mostly  denominational.  Originally  stu- 
dents were  required  to  have  had  4  years 
as  pupil  teachers,  but  may  now  have  3 
years,  2  years,  or  i  year,  dependent  on 
passing  certain  examinations. 


Courses  of  Study  107 

Secondary :  No  state  system. 

Numerous  colleges  and  universities. 
The  University  of  London  is  only  an  ex- 
amining body. 

France  —  Ecoles  maternelles  :  2  to  6 
years  of  age. 

Lower  primary  :  6  to  13  years  of  age,  3 
courses  of  2  years  each,  —  elementary, 
middle,  and  advanced,  completion  confer- 
ring the  certificate  D'Etudes  Primaire. 

Course  complementaires  :  2  years  more. 

Upper  primary :  2  years,  similar  to  the 
course  complementaires  or  complete  if  3 
or  more ;  confers  Brevet  Elementaire. 

Primary  normal  schools  admit  by  exam- 
ination those  holding  Brevet  Superieure. 

Industrial  and  commercial  schools  admit 
by  Brevet  Eldmentaire. 

Secondary :  Lycdes  and  communal  col- 
leges ;  10  years'  courses,  either  classical 
or  modern,  in  3  sections, — elementary,  8 
to  1 1  years  of  age ;  grammar,  11  to  14 ; 


io8  State  Control  of 

and  superior,  14  to  18.  These  have  3 
courses,  —  philosophical,  mathematical, 
and  scientific,  all  leading  to  the  same  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Letters  which  admits 
to  the  university.  The  6co\e  normale 
sup6rieure  trains  for  secondary  schools. 
France  has  also  continuation  schools  and 
industrial  and  technical  schools  of  various 
kinds. 

Finland  —  Primary :  Lower  school  of 
2  years,  upper  school,  or  secondary 
school. 

Secondary :  Incomplete,  or  complete  in 
8  years ;  in  2  divisions,  —  Finnish  and 
Swedish. 

Complete  lyceum  course  admits  to  uni- 
versity with  leaving  examination.  There 
are  also  commercial  and  technical  schools. 

Greece  —  Elementary  :  Demotic  schools 
of  4  years,  followed  by  Hellenic  of  4  years. 
Graduates  of  Hellenic  schools  enter  sec- 
ondary or  normal  schools. 


Courses  of  Study  109 

Grammato-scholeion  are  ungraded 
schools. 

Secondary  :  Gymnasion  divided  into  the 
first  class  of  4  years,  and  the  second  of  2 
years.  Dismissal  examination  admits  to 
university. 

Hungary  —  Compulsory  kindergarten 
from  3  to  6  years  of  age. 

Elementary:  6  to  12;  5  classes  of  i 
year  each. 

Revision  school  from  12  to  15. 

Higher  elementary  schools  admit  on 
completion  of  elementary  course ;  3  years 
for  boys  and  2  for  girls. 

Citizen  schools  admit  after  4  years,  ele- 
mentary; 6  years  for  boys  and  4  for 
girls. 

Training  colleges  admit  after  4  years  of 
secondary  or  citizen  school,  3  years* 
course. 

Secondary:  Gymnasien  and  realschulen, 
or  classical   and  modern.     Admit  after  4 


no  State  Control  of 

years'  elementary  course  at  9  years  of  age. 
Eight  classes  of  i  year  each ;  leaving  ex- 
amination qualifies  to  enter  university. 

State  Training  College  for  secondary 
teachers,  2  to  4  years. 

India  —  Elementary  :  Primary  school 
divided  into  lower  of  3  standards  of  i  year 
each,  and  upper  of  i  standard  of  i  year, 
after  completion. 

Secondary:  Middle  and  high  schools; 
or  lower  and  upper  secondary;  or  col- 
legiate and  district.  These  in  2  divisions 
of  3  years  each.  Examination  from  upper 
prepares  to  enter  university. 

Training  schools  of  2  or  3  years. 

Italy  —  Asilo  —  Kindergarten,  from  4 
to  6  years  of  age. 

Elementary :  Inferior  —  3  classes  of  i 
year  each;  superior  —  2  classes  of  i  year 
each.  Also  evening,  holiday,  and  adult 
schools  supplementary  to  public  day 
schools. 


Courses  of  Study  iii 

Normal:  Superior  of  6  years,  3  of 
preparation  and  3  of  instruction ;  inferior 
of  5  years,  3  of  preparation  and  2  of 
instruction. 

Secondary :  8  years ;  gymnasium  di- 
vided into  inferior  of  3  years  and  superior 
of  2  years,  followed  by  the  lyceum  of  3 
years.  Graduates  of  the  lyceum  enter  the 
universities. 

Also  secondary  technical  schools. 

Japan  —  Elementary:  Ordinary,  3  or 
4  classes  of   i    year  each,  and  higher   of 

2  to    4    classes  of    i   year  each.     From 
higher  to  normal  school  of  4  years. 

Secondary:  Middle  schools  of  5  years, 
leading  to  higher   schools  or   colleges   of 

3  or  4  years ;  these  lead  to  the  university. 

Technical  schools  also  provided. 

Jamaica  —  Primary :  Preparatory,  stand- 
ard A,  4  to  6  years  of  age;  and  junior, 
standard  B  or  standard  i,  6  to  8  years 
of  age. 


112  State  Control  of 

Elementary :  standards  2  to  6  inclusive, 
and  may  have  7. 

Training  colleges  have  2  or  3  years* 
courses.  I 

Mexico  —  Elementary :  Primary  course 
from  6  to  12  years  of  age,  6  classes. 
Enter  normal  school  after  4  years'  primary 
and  have  4  years*  course. 

Secondary :  National  colleges  and  other 
preparatory  schools  of  4  or  5  years. 

Many  technical  and  trade  schools. 

Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nica- 
ragua, and  Costa  Rica,  similar  to  Mexico 
but  not  so  complete. 

Norway  —  Complete  primary  schools 
have  a  7  years*  course  in  3  divisions; 
the  first  of  classes  i,  2,  and  3 ;  the 
second  of  classes  4  and  5 ;  and  the  third  of 
classes  6  and  7. 

Undivided  schools  (rural)  have  two  divi- 
sions: first  and  second,  or  more,  ranging 
to    the    complete    course.     Continuation 


Courses  of  Study  113 

schools  carry  on  advanced  work,  as  do 
night  schools  and  county  schools. 

Training  colleges  admit  from  a  year's 
preparatory  course  and  give  2  years'  work. 

People's  high  schools  for  young  men 
and  women  are  inexpensive  boarding 
schools  for  general  culture. 

Workingmen's  colleges  offer  lectures, 
chiefly  scientific. 

Secondary:  Middelskole  admits  from 
fifth  year  of  the  elementary  school.  The 
leaving  examination  of  the  Gymnasium  ad- 
mits to  the  only  university. 

Netherlands  —  Kindergarten. 

Elementary :  6  to  8  classes  of  i  year 
each. 

Burgher  schools  —  mostly  evening;  a 
kind  of  high  school  with  courses  of  2  to 
4  years. 

Secondary:  Higher  burgher  schools 
have  4  years'  courses,  and  diploma  ad- 
mits to  university.    Enter  from  elementary. 


114  State  Control  of 

Gymnasia  similar  to  Germany. 

New  Zealand  —  Elementary  :  Primary 
schools  of  standards  i,  2,  and  3,  of  i  or 
2  years,  and  4,  5,  and  6,  of  i  year 
each. 

Pupil-teacher  course  is  usually  5  years, 
of  which  2  may  be  remitted  by  passing 
class  D  examination  or  the  university 
matriculation. 

Secondary :  Mostly  endowed  high 
schools,  with  3  and  4  years*  courses. 

State  university  merely  an  examining 
body. 

Natal  —  Elementary :  Primary  schools 
of  7  standards  of  i  year  each. 

Secondary:  High  schools;  enter  from 
primary,  3  or  4  years*  courses. 

No  normal  school  or  university. 

Portugal  —  Maternal  schools,  3  to  6 
years  of  age. 

Elementary:  Primary  schools  in  2 
grades;    first    grade    of    3   classes    of    i 


Courses  of  Study  115 

year  each,  and  second  grade  of  i  class  of 
I  year. 

Continuation  evening  schools  for  boys 
and  men. 

Normal  schools  admit  from  higher  pri- 
mary; have  an  elementary  course  of  2 
years  and  a  complementary  course  of  i 
year  additional. 

Secondary  :  admit  from  higher  primary. 
These  are  lyc^es  and  are  of  2  kinds, — 
national  of  5,  and  central  of  7  classes  of 
I  year  each.  Leaving  examination  ad- 
mits to  the  only  university. 

Industrial  schools  have  3  courses  of 
from  3  to  5  years. 

Prussia  —  Typical  of  Germany. 

Elementary :  Volkschulen — in  cities  and 
large  towns  have  8  grades  of  i  year 
each. 

Einklassige  Volkschule  (ungraded)  of 
fewer  than  80  pupils;  3  classes  of  2,  3, 
and  2  or  3  years  respectively. 


ii6  State  Control  of 

Halbtagschule  of  more  than  80  pupils, 
in  2  half-day  divisions,  {a)  Schools  with 
I  teacher;  {b)  schools  with  2  teachers; 
{c)  with  3  teachers;   {d)  with  4  teachers. 

Each  of  these  has  elaborate  sub- 
divisions. 

Prapar  and  entstalten  are  preparatory 
to  the  normal  schools,  mostly  private. 
They  require  8  years  of  elementary  cur- 
riculum and  have  3  years'  courses. 

Normal  schools  (called  teachers*  semi- 
naries) admit  by  examination  from  pri- 
vate instruction  or  preparatory  gymnasien, 
realschulen,  or  middle  schools.  Course 
of  3  years. 

Secondary :  Gymnasien  admit  at  9  years 
of  age,  and  have  3  classes  of  3  years  each, 
these  subdivided  into  i-year  classes.  Grad- 
uation admits  to  universities. 

Progymnasien  are  gymnasien  lacking 
some  of  the  higher  classes.  They  have 
usually  only  lower  and  middle  classes. 


Courses  of  Study  117 

Realschulen  of  9  years,  similar  to  gym- 
nasien,  but  English  replaces  Greek  and 
more  time  is  given  to  French  and  natu- 
ral science.  Graduation  admits  to  uni- 
versity courses  in  mathematics,  science, 
and  modern  languages,  —  debarred  from 
professions  and  certain  civil  service  posi- 
tions. 

Realschulen  have  6  classes  of  i  year 
each  with  no  classical  languages. 

Oberrealschulen  add  3  years  to  real- 
schulen. Graduates  admitted  to  univer- 
sity courses  in  mathematics  and  natural 
science.  Standing  about  same  as  real- 
gymnasien.  Hohere  madchenschulen  of 
9  years  for  girls  admit  at  6  years  of  age. 
A  few  gymnasien  for  girls. 

Secondary  teachers,  after  passing  the 
state  examinations,  have  2  years  in  a  sem- 
inary,—  I  seminarjahr  and  i  probejahr. 

Russia  —  Maternal  or  infant  schools 
have  2  or  3  years. 


ii8  State  Control  of 

Elementary  village  schools  have  i,  2, 
or  3  classes  of  i  year  each.  Higher 
grades  of  elementary  schools  in  cities 
have  S  classes  of  i  year  each,  or  2-class 
model  schools  with  a  5  years'  course.  From 
the  fourth  year  may  enter  gymnasium. 

Evening  and  Sunday  schools  for  adults. 

Secondary :  Gymnasium  of  8  classes  of 

1  year  each;  progymnasium  of  8  years; 
and  realgymnasium  of  7  years.     The  first 

2  admit  on  graduation  to  the  universi- 
ties and  the  other  to  the  higher  technical 
schools. 

There  are  also  technical,  naval,  military, 
and  theological  schools. 

Servia  —  Elementary :  Primary  course 
of  4  years  of  i  class  each;  and  higher 
primary  of  3  classes  of  i  year  each. 

Secondary:  Admit  on  completion  of 
lower  primary  course.  A  complete  sec- 
ondary school  has  a  junior  and  senior 
division  of  4  years  each,  or  8  classes  in 


Courses  of  Study  119 

all.  Leaving  examination  admits  to  the 
university.  Normal  schools  of  4  years* 
course  admit  after  completion  of  junior 
division  of  gymnasium. 

Switzerland  —  Kindergarten,  4  to  6 
years  of  age. 

Elementary :  Primary  schools  in  2  divi- 
sions ;  the  elementarschule  with  classes  4, 
5,  and  6  of  I  year  each.  Boys  then  may 
enter  (at  12). 

Secondary:  (i)  The  kantonschule  (or 
gymnasium),  or  (2)  the  higher  grade  school 
(sekunarschule),  or  (3)  classes  7  and  8  of 
the  primary  school.  Examination  from 
the  gymnasium  admits  to  universities. 

At  14  boys  may  pass  from  (i)  or  (2)  to 
an  industrieschule  for  a  4  years*  course, 
commercial  or  technical. 

Girls'  primary  and  higher  grade  schools 
are  about  the  same  as  the  boys*,  with 
needlework  in  addition.  At  15  they  may 
enter  a  girls*  high  school  and  have  a  choice 


120  State  Control  of 

of  3  courses,  —  general,  commercial,  or 
training  for  primary  teaching. 

The  gewerkeschulen  (handicrafts  and 
industrial  arts)  are  similar  to  the  English 
evening  schools,  but  are  day  schools. 
Apprentices  go  twice  a  week  for  a  morn- 
ing. They  have  a  preparatory  course  of 
I  year,  and  a  handicraft  course  of  i  year ; 
completion  allows  entrance  to  the  Tech- 
nicum,  or  the  Industrial  Art  School. 

There  also  are  continuation  commercial 
schools. 

Training  colleges  have  courses  of  2  to 
4  years,  and  admit  by  examination  from 
the  higher  primary.  Some  require  2  or 
3  years  of  sekundarschule. 

Sweden  —  Elementary  :  Primary  edu- 
cation in  the  junior  school  for  2  years, 
in  the  senior  school  for  4  years.  Con- 
tinuation schools  advance  the  work,  and 
a  few  places  have  higher  grade  schools 
for  those  who  have  finished  the  primary. 


Courses  of  Study  121 

Lower  primary  schools  of  a  few  classes 
are  only  in  the  country. 

Normal  schools  admit  primary  graduates 
at  16  and  have  4  years'  courses;  the  peo- 
ple's high  schools  admit  primary  graduates 
at  the  age  of  18  and  have  2  years'  work, 
—  about  6  months  to  each  year. 

Secondary !  Admit  to  age  of  9,  9  years* 
course  of  5  classes  of  i  year  each,  and 
sixth  and  seventh  of  2  years  each.  Clas- 
sical and  modern  courses  differentiate  at 
end  of  fourth  year.  Leaving  examination 
admits  to  the  universities.  Teachers  for 
secondary  schools  must  be  university  grad- 
uates with  a  year  in  a  training  college. 

United  States  —  Kindergarten :  4  to  6 
years  of  age. 

Elementary  :  7,  8,  or  9  grades  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country ;  an  average 
of  about  8  years  below  the  high  school. 
Graduates  enter  the  high  school. 

Secondary :    high    schools    of    3    or    4 


122  State  Control  of 

years'  courses.  In  the  South  and  West 
graduates  enter  university  without  ex- 
amination. In  the  East  by  entrance 
examinations. 

All  southern  and  western  states  and 
some  eastern  states  have  state  universities, 
—  the  summit  of  a  connected  system  from 
the  kindergarten  through  the  university. 

Normal  schools  have  i  to  4  years* 
courses ;  high  school  graduates  usually 
enter  the  third  year. 

High  schools  are  not  uniform,  ranging 
from  a  single  course  in  the  smaller  to  a 
variety  of  courses  or  electives  in  the  larger. 
The  state  of  New  York  is  the  most  nearly 
uniform,  controlling  through  the  Regents* 
Examinations. 


Courses  of  Study  123 


BOOKS   CONSULTED 

Reports  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education. 

Circulars  of  Information  —  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education. 

Special  Reports  on  Educational  Sub- 
jects—  Educational  Department  of  Great 
Britain. 

School  laws  of  various  countries  men- 
tioned. 

School  laws  of  the  American  states. 

Elementary  Education  in  France  — 
Teegan. 

Technical  and  Industrial  Education  in 
France  —  Teegan. 

English  Education  —  Sharp  less. 

Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  —  Balfour. 

Elementary  Schools  of  Great  Britain  — 
Greenough. 


124  State  Control  of 

Methods  in  the  Schools  of  Germany  — 
Prince, 

French  Schools  through  American 
Eyes  —  Parsons, 

Prussian  Schools  through  American 
Eyes  —  Parsons. 

Educational  Foundations  of  Trade  and 
Industry  —  Ware. 

The  State  and  Education  —  Schaible. 

State  Education  for  the  People  — 
Bardeen. 

The  Educational  Conquest  of  the  Far 
East  —  Lewis. 

The  Lore  of  Cathay  —  Martin. 

Progress  of  Education  in  India — 
Cotton. 

The  Schools  of  Greater  Britain  — 
Russell. 

Documents  Illustrative  of  American 
Educational  History  —  Hinsdale. 

Schools  of  England  and  Germany  — 
Ross. 


Courses  of  Study  125 

The  School  System  of  Ontario  —  Ross. 

Education  in  India  —  Chamberlain. 

European  Schools  —  Klemm. 

German  Elementary  Education  — 
Perry. 

German  Higher  Schools  —  Russell. 

Secondary  Schools  of  Germany  — 
Bolton. 

School  Supervision  and  Maintenance  — 
Fellows. 

Education  in  the  United  States  — 
Butler. 

Anglo-Saxon  Superiority  —  Demolins. 

Austro-Hungarian  Life  in  Town  and 
Country  —  Palmer. 

Dutch  Life  in  Town  and  Country 
—  Hough. 

France  as  It  Is  —  Lebon  and  Pelet. 

Teaching  in  Three  Continents —  Grasby. 

Educational  Codes  —  Sonnenschein. 

Reports  on  Foreign  Education,  in  Ed- 
ucation and  other  magazines. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


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